Nationwide Poles and Sasol (Oil) Pty Ltd (72/CR/Dec03) [2005] ZACT 17; [2005] 1 CPLR 156 (CT) (31 March 2005)

80 Reportability
Competition Law

Brief Summary

Competition Law — Price Discrimination — Nationwide Poles, a small producer of treated wooden poles, alleged that Sasol Oil (Pty) Ltd charged it higher prices for creosote than those charged to larger competitors, constituting prohibited price discrimination under Section 9 of the Competition Act. The Tribunal considered the relevant market definitions and determined that Sasol was a dominant firm within the market for wood preservatives. The Tribunal found that Sasol's pricing practices met the criteria for prohibited price discrimination, and ordered Sasol to supply creosote to Nationwide at the same price terms as its competitors.

Comprehensive Summary

Summary of Judgment


1. Introduction


The proceedings took place before the Competition Tribunal of South Africa and concerned a complaint of prohibited price discrimination under section 9 of the Competition Act 89 of 1998. The complainant sought a declaratory finding that a prohibited practice had occurred and additionally sought an interdict compelling supply on the best available price terms.


The parties were Nationwide Poles CC (the complainant), a small producer of treated wooden poles operating from the Eastern Cape, and Sasol (Oil) (Pty) Ltd (the respondent), which marketed (among other products) a wood preservative product, creosote, including a wax-additive creosote branded SAK K.


The matter had an initial investigative stage before the Competition Commission. Nationwide lodged a complaint on 30 April 2003, alleging contraventions of sections 4(1)(b) and 9(1) of the Act. The Commission issued a notice of non-referral on 12 November 2003, after which Nationwide elected to proceed directly before the Tribunal. In the Tribunal proceedings, Nationwide pursued only the section 9 (price discrimination) claim.


The general subject-matter of the dispute was Sasol’s volume-based discount structure for creosote and whether charging smaller purchasers (including Nationwide) a higher price than larger competitors constituted prohibited price discrimination in circumstances where Sasol was alleged to be a dominant supplier of creosote.


2. Material Facts


Nationwide produced treated wooden poles by procuring untreated pine poles and impregnating them with a preservative. In Nationwide’s operation, the preservative used was creosote, specifically SAK K, which was produced by Sasol. Although Nationwide’s plant was located in the Eastern Cape, most of its customers were vineyards in the Western Cape.


Sasol’s relevant business involved producing tar as a by-product of synthetic fuel production, which tar served as feedstock for various “carbo-tar” products, including wood preservatives such as creosote. Creosote was sold to customers, including pole-treatment businesses, for use in treatment of poles and other applications.


After Mr Jim Foot acquired Nationwide on 31 May 2002, he became aware around August 2002 that Sasol was charging Nationwide a higher creosote price than the price charged to certain competitors, particularly Woodline, a large pole manufacturer and Nationwide’s most significant competitor. Sasol furnished a price list which confirmed the differential. It was common cause that Sasol’s creosote price schedule allowed for discounts based on purchase volumes, with smaller customers paying the highest prices and larger customers receiving more favourable prices.


A central factual dispute concerned the relevant product market. Nationwide contended for a narrow market (ultimately either wax-additive creosote or creosote), while Sasol contended for a broader market for wood preservatives, asserting that CCA (copper chrome arsenate) was directly substitutable for creosote. The Tribunal rejected the narrowest “wax-additive creosote” market, but ultimately also rejected the “wood preservatives” market definition and concluded that the relevant market was creosote.


In reaching that market definition, the Tribunal treated as material the evidence that substitutability between CCA and creosote was limited in important applications, including electricity transmission and telephone poles, and that toxicity and regulatory pressures (including evidence about evolving export-market constraints affecting vineyards) were likely to constrain CCA use further. The Tribunal also treated as material the unreliability and uncertainty in Sasol’s statistical evidence (including the use of SAWPA data that included exports and estimates regarding rivals’ volumes), and cautioned against drawing strong inferences of substitution from the data presented.


On dominance, the Tribunal accepted evidence indicating Sasol’s creosote market share exceeded 45% throughout the relevant period, including figures based on SAWPA levies, figures derived from Iscor/ICC sales data, and Sasol’s own internal documents indicating market shares in the region of the mid-50% range. The Tribunal also relied on evidence suggesting Sasol set creosote prices according to its own internal pricing framework (including “fuel equivalent price” considerations) and did not negotiate prices with customers nor respond to competitors’ pricing in a manner characteristic of competitive constraint.


As to competitive impact, the Tribunal accepted that creosote constituted a significant input into Nationwide’s cost structure and that the price differential imposed a measurable disadvantage. Evidence placed the overall disadvantage at approximately 3% to 4% of Nationwide’s total cost structure (with Sasol’s expert placing it at about 3.6% in relation to the discount differential described). The Tribunal treated as relevant Sasol’s conduct concerning very small “twilight treaters,” including evidence that Sasol increased drum-load pricing at the request of larger customers to make it uneconomic for micro-producers to operate.


3. Legal Issues


The Tribunal was required to determine, first, the relevant market and, within that market, whether Sasol was a dominant firm as defined in section 7 of the Act. These questions involved factual assessment (including technical and commercial substitutability) and the application of competition-law concepts to the evidence.


Secondly, the Tribunal had to decide whether Sasol’s pricing conduct satisfied each element of section 9(1), namely whether the discrimination was likely to have the effect of substantially preventing or lessening competition, whether it occurred in respect of equivalent transactions, and whether it constituted discrimination by price (including discounts) within the scope of section 9(1)(c). This required interpretation of section 9(1)(a) and an evaluative judgment about what constitutes “likely” and “substantial” in the statutory setting, rather than proof of a precise quantified consumer-welfare outcome.


Thirdly, if the elements of section 9(1) were satisfied, the Tribunal had to consider whether Sasol established any justification under the closed list of defences in section 9(2). This raised an application-of-law-to-fact inquiry, because Sasol’s case focused largely on contesting dominance and the section 9(1) elements, rather than establishing a section 9(2) justification.


4. Court’s Reasoning


On market definition, the Tribunal rejected the proposition that the relevant market was limited to wax-additive creosote (SAK K), finding insufficient basis to treat it as non-substitutable from other creosote products or as a product whose attributes could not be replicated or substituted at user level. However, the Tribunal also rejected Sasol’s broader “wood preservatives” market definition that incorporated CCA, finding that the evidence did not support meaningful substitutability in key end-uses and that regulatory and toxicity considerations were likely to further constrain substitution away from creosote.


In addressing Sasol’s substitution evidence, the Tribunal regarded Sasol’s reliance on SAWPA data and other sales figures as inconclusive and unreliable, noting confusion and inconsistency in the expert evidence and uncertainty about whether export volumes were included. The Tribunal also noted the risk of drawing substitution inferences where prices may already be supra-competitive, expressly identifying the conceptual concern known as the cellophane fallacy (as it relates to misinterpreting demand shifts following price increases). The Tribunal concluded that the relevant product market was the market for creosote.


On dominance, the Tribunal applied section 7(a) and found that Sasol’s market share exceeded 45%, making Sasol presumptively dominant. The Tribunal further considered market power (even though not strictly necessary given section 7(a)) and accepted that Sasol’s pricing behaviour demonstrated an ability to behave independently of competitors and customers. The Tribunal placed weight on evidence that Sasol issued annual price schedules with little or no negotiation, and that Sasol’s creosote pricing was largely driven by exogenous considerations tied to Sasol’s fuels business and feedstock opportunity costs rather than competitive conditions in the wood preservative/poles sector. The Tribunal treated Sasol’s claimed lack of awareness of a competitor’s pricing as either implausible or supportive of the conclusion that Sasol priced without competitive constraint.


On the interpretation of section 9(1)(a), the Tribunal rejected Sasol’s contention that the complainant had to prove actual harm to consumer welfare (such as higher downstream prices or reduced output). Instead, the Tribunal adopted a purposive and contextual interpretation of section 9 within the architecture of the Act, treating section 9 as a “named” prohibited practice with specified elements and a closed list of statutory defences. The Tribunal reasoned that section 9(1)(a) established a threshold concerned with competitive relevance and substantiality, not a full “rule of reason” requirement that small complainants would be unable to satisfy. The Tribunal emphasised the Act’s structure (contrasting named prohibitions with general effects-based prohibitions) and the presence of section 9(2) defences as indicating that once the elements are established, the conduct is prohibited unless justified within section 9(2).


Applying that approach to the facts, the Tribunal accepted that the discount structure created a material differential between the least and most favoured customers, that creosote was a significant input cost for firms like Nationwide competing downstream, and that the differential placed Nationwide and similarly situated firms at an ongoing disadvantage relative to larger competitors. The Tribunal considered the “twilight treaters” evidence as corroborating a plausible commercial rationale for disadvantaging smaller downstream rivals (by making entry and survival harder in a market with low entry barriers). Taken together, these considerations satisfied the Tribunal that the discrimination was likely to have an effect on the competitive structure and that this effect was substantial in the sense contemplated by section 9(1)(a).


On equivalent transactions under section 9(1)(b), the Tribunal interpreted “equivalence” as concerned with whether the transactions have the same or similar economic effect, rather than being merely functionally identical. The Tribunal did not accept Sasol’s expert’s post hoc attempt to justify non-equivalence by reference to differences in “value” to Sasol (including risk considerations), finding that this theory was not supported by Sasol’s direct evidence nor by the manner in which the discount structure operated. The Tribunal observed that Sasol’s discount structure rewarded customers for past volumes rather than binding them through future-uptake commitments (such as long-term contracts), weakening the contention that sales to large customers were economically non-equivalent in a way that could justify differential treatment at the level of the section 9(1)(b) element.


On section 9(1)(c), the Tribunal treated it as common cause that the discrimination related to price differentials produced through differential discounts based on purchase volumes, bringing the conduct within the scope of the subsection.


On defences under section 9(2), the Tribunal noted that Sasol did not ultimately invoke the statutory defences in a manner meeting section 9(2)’s requirements and that Sasol’s expert expressly denied that the price differences were based on cost differences of transacting with customers of different sizes. Although there was discussion of possible scale economies in distribution, Sasol did not lead evidence establishing cost-based justification as contemplated in section 9(2). The Tribunal accordingly found no applicable justification had been proved.


5. Outcome and Relief


The Tribunal found that Sasol was a dominant firm in the creosote market and that Sasol’s pricing conduct met the requirements for prohibited price discrimination under section 9(1), with no valid justification established under section 9(2). The Tribunal held that Sasol had therefore contravened section 9 of the Competition Act.


The Tribunal granted Nationwide a declaration that a prohibited practice had occurred, as contemplated by section 65(6)(b), enabling Nationwide (if it chose) to institute a civil damages claim in the High Court.


The Tribunal refused the requested interdict compelling Sasol to supply Nationwide at the price afforded to Sasol’s most favoured customer. The Tribunal reasoned that its decision was tied to the facts of a particular historical period and that future relief of that kind would require the relevant facts (including dominance) to pertain in the future; it noted that continued contravention could expose Sasol to administrative penalties if proven in subsequent proceedings.


On costs, the Tribunal followed its practice in private litigation of awarding costs to the successful party and ordered Sasol to pay Nationwide’s costs. It directed that Mr Foot, who had represented Nationwide himself, be treated on taxation as if his services were those of a qualified professional legal representative.


Cases Cited


No reported cases were cited in the portion of the judgment provided.


Legislation Cited


Competition Act 89 of 1998 (sections 2(e), 4(1)(b), 7, 8, 9(1), 9(2), 10(3)(b)(ii), 12A(3)(c), 65(6)(b)).


Robinson–Patman Act (United States of America).


Sherman Act (United States of America).


Rules of Court Cited


No rules of court were cited in the portion of the judgment provided.


Held


The Tribunal held that the relevant product market was the creosote market (and not a broader wood preservative market including CCA, and not the narrow market limited to wax-additive creosote). On the evidence, CCA was not shown to be a sufficiently close substitute for creosote in the applications material to the dispute, and Sasol’s substitution evidence based on industry data was treated as unreliable and inconclusive.


The Tribunal held that Sasol’s market share exceeded 45% in the creosote market during the relevant period, rendering Sasol dominant under section 7(a). It further held that Sasol’s pricing conduct demonstrated market power, in that Sasol set prices largely independently of competitors and customers.


The Tribunal held that Sasol’s volume-based discounting created a material price differential between customers in circumstances where creosote was a significant input for downstream competitors, and that the discrimination was likely to have the effect of substantially preventing or lessening competition in the sense contemplated by section 9(1)(a), interpreted purposively as a threshold of competitive relevance and substantiality rather than a requirement to prove consumer-welfare harm.


The Tribunal held that the transactions were equivalent for purposes of section 9(1)(b) and that the discriminatory conduct related to price/discounts within section 9(1)(c). Sasol did not establish a justification under section 9(2). Sasol was therefore found to have contravened section 9 of the Act during April 2001 to August 2004.


LEGAL PRINCIPLES


The Tribunal applied the principle that relevant market definition in competition matters turns on substitutability assessed in light of technical characteristics, end-use constraints, regulatory developments, and the reliability of evidence presented to show switching or demand responses. Where data are unclear (including where export figures and estimates undermine inference), market definition conclusions should be approached with caution.


The Tribunal applied the statutory principle that a firm with at least 45% market share is dominant in terms of section 7(a), and it treated evidence of pricing behaviour independent of competitors and customers as supportive of the presence of market power as defined in the Act.


The Tribunal articulated and applied a purposive interpretation of section 9(1)(a). It treated the subsection as establishing a competition-relevance threshold (addressed to removing the irrelevant and the trivial) rather than a requirement that a complainant prove measurable consumer welfare harm (such as increased downstream prices or reduced output). This interpretation was grounded in the structure of the Act’s prohibited practices, the separation of section 9 from the general abuse provisions, and the presence of a closed list of defences in section 9(2).


The Tribunal applied an interpretation of “equivalent transactions” in section 9(1)(b) as transactions having the same or similar economic effect, not merely functional similarity. Where differential pricing is justified post hoc by reference to “value” or “risk,” the justification must align with how the pricing structure actually operates (for example, whether it is connected to forward commitments such as long-term contracts rather than merely rewarding past purchases).


The Tribunal applied the principle that, once dominance and the elements of section 9(1) are established, the conduct constitutes prohibited price discrimination unless the dominant firm proves a justification within section 9(2). Where cost-based or similar defences are not invoked or are not supported by evidence, the statutory defences do not avail the respondent.

THE COMPETITION TRIBUNAL 
REPUBLIC OF SOUTH AFRICA
CASE NO: 72/CR/Dec03
In the matter between:
Nationwide Poles  Complainant
And
Sasol (Oil) Pty Ltd Respondent 
DECISION AND ORDER
Background
1. The complainant, Nationwide Poles CC (‘Nationwide’), is a small producer of  
treated wooden poles based in the Eastern Cape province. It procures supplies  
of untreated pine poles from the sawmills and then impregnates the poles with  
a wood preservative.  In the case of Nationwide the preservative employed is  
creosote, or, to be more specific, SAK K, the brand name of a wax­additive  
creosote produced by Sasol. Although the Nationwide plant is based in the  
Eastern Cape the bulk of its customers are vineyards in the Western Cape.  
2. The respondent, Sasol Oil (Pty) Ltd  (‘Sasol’), a major subsidiary of the Sasol  
group of companies, is responsible for the marketing of Sasol's liquid fuels  
and   lubricants.   The   process   of   producing   synthetic   fuel   releases   a   tar   by­
product which is then utilised as the feedstock for the production of a range of  
other products manufactured through Sasol’s carbo­tar division. The carbo­tar  
division comprises a number of business units corresponding to the range of  
products   generated   from   the   tar   feedstock   these   being   wood   preservatives,  
DIY   and   black   disinfectants   and   surface   coatings.   The   wood   preservative,  
creosote, produced by Sasol is utilised by its customers for a range of different  
uses including the treatment of poles.
3. Nationwide Poles was acquired by Mr. Jim Foot on the 31 st May 2002 at a  
time when its business was ailing.  Mr Foot brings this complaint on behalf of  
Nationwide Poles.
4. In   about   August   2002   Foot   became   aware   that   Sasol   was   charging   him   a  
1

higher price for his purchases of creosote than that charged to his competitors.  
Foot approached Sasol for a price list which, after some apparent reluctance  
on Sasol’s part, was furnished. The price list confirmed that the price charged  
by Sasol for creosote  supplied  to Nationwide  was notably  higher  than that  
levied   on   Woodline,   a   very   large   pole   manufacturer   in   the   Eastern   and  
Western   Cape   and   Nationwide’s   most   important   competitor.     It   is,   indeed,  
common cause that Sasol’s price schedule for the sale of creosote allows for  
discounts based on purchase volumes, with its largest customers receiving the  
most preferred prices while its smallest customers, of whom the complainant  
is one, charged the highest price on Sasol’s price schedule.  
5. On 30 April 2003 Nationwide lodged a complaint against the respondent with  
the Competition Commission.  It alleged contravention of sections 4(1)(b) and  
9(1) of the Competition Act (‘the Act‘). It received a Notice of Non­referral  
from the Commission on the 12 November 2003.  Nationwide then elected to  
approach the Tribunal directly.  In the present proceedings Nationwide is only  
pursuing a claim in terms of Section 9 of the Act, the section that proscribes  
‘prohibited price discrimination’. In essence, alleges that the discount structure  
utilised in the pricing of Sasol’s wood preservative, creosote, meets the test of  
prohibited   price   discrimination   and   it   requests   that   the   Tribunal   makes   a  
finding to this effect.   Nationwide also asks the Tribunal  to order Sasol to  
supply it on the same price terms as those available to its competitors.
Section 9 of the Competition Act
6. Section 9 provides:
2

3

20. The customers consulted apparently preferred the latter option.
 
What we have to determine
21. We   will   examine   each   of   the   constituent   elements   of   Section   9.     We   will  
commence   the   analysis   by   identifying   the   relevant   market.   As   commonly  
occurs   in   anti­trust   litigation,   this   requires   us   to   decide   major   factual   and  
analytical disputes between the parties. Nationwide prefers a narrow relevant  
market – indeed it argues that the relevant market is that for the product named  
SAK K, a particular wax­additive creosote produced by Sasol alone.  On this  
version   of   the   relevant   market   Sasol   is   a   monopolist.     Sasol,   for   its   part,  
contends for a significantly wider market.  It insists that the market is that for  
wood preservatives, and that this market, far from being confined to SAK K,  
includes   not   only   all   creosote   but   also   a   product   called   CCA   or   ‘copper  
chrome  arsenate’,  a product  that,  alleges  Sasol, is directly  substitutable  for  
creosote.     This   involves   an   examination   of   certain   of   the   technical  
characteristics   of   the   products   concerned.   Having   determined   the   relevant  
market we then ask whether, in that market, the respondent, Sasol, meets the  
Act’s definition of a dominant firm.  
22. Because, as we elaborate below, we do find that the respondent is indeed a  
dominant firm, we then go on to ask whether the complainant has successfully  
established that the practice in question conforms to the elements of prohibited  
price discrimination provided for in Sections 9(1)(a), (b) and (c).   Sasol has  
made much of the proper interpretation of Section 9(1)(a), in particular the  
nature   and   extent   of   the   evidential   burden   that   the   complainant   has   to  
discharge to show that the price discrimination is ‘likely to have the effect of  
substantially preventing or lessening competition’.

substantially preventing or lessening competition’.  
23. Because we do conclude that Sasol is engaged in the practice of prohibited  
price   discrimination,   we   then   proceed   to   examine   whether   or   not   the  
respondent has successfully invoked the defences provided for in Section 9(2).  
24. The matter was heard on the 4­6 August , 22 nd, 23 rd, 31 st  August   and 1 st 
December 2004.  The following witnesses testified:
25. For the complainant 
i.Mr. Jim Foot, owner, Nationwide Poles
ii.Ms. Tammy Bruno, Botar Enterprises CC
iii.Mr.   Angus   Currie,   CEO,   South   African   Wood   Preserver’s   Association  
(“SAWPA”)
iv.Dr. Simon Roberts, Wits University, expert for Nationwide Poles
26.    For the respondent 
v.Mr AB Stears, from South African Timber Auditing Services
4

vi.Mr Fanie Van Wyk, Sasol Manager
vii.Mr. Stephan Malherbe, Genesis, expert for Sasol
The relevant market
27. Three   possible   relevant   product   markets   have   been   proposed.     As   already  
indicated, Nationwide has proposed that wax­additive creosote be considered  
the relevant market, alternatively creosote.  Sasol is the only manufacturer of  
wax­additive creosote in South Africa, the relevant geographic market.  There  
is   only   one   other   producer   of   creosote   in   South   Africa,   this   being  
Suprachem/ICC,   part   of   the   large   iron   and   steel   producer,   ISPAT/ISCOR  
(Iscor), now named Mittal Steel.  Suprachem and refines crude tar, which is a  
by­product of Iscor’s coke production, and manufactures and markets coke, tar  
and related by­products. The company is engaged in the distilling of tar and  
crude benzol into 40 different industrial chemicals.
28. Sasol,   for   its   part,   insists   that   the   relevant   market   is   that   for   wood  
preservatives.     This   market,   avers   Sasol,   essentially   comprises   two  
substitutable products, creosote and copper­chrome­arsenate or CCA.   There  
are other products employed as wood preservatives but their share is marginal  
and does not affect our conclusions.  If CCA is part of the relevant market then  
it is common cause that Sasol’s  share would fall below 35% and, in order to  
establish dominance, the complainant would have to prove market power.
29. We   do   not   accept   the   narrower   of   the   market   definitions   proposed   by  
Nationwide. This is the market for wax­additive creosote.  It appears that there  
is only  one such product, that  being  SAK  K, which  is produced by Sasol.  
Accepting this definition of the relevant market would effectively render Sasol  
a monopolist in the market in question. While we have no reason to doubt Mr.  
Foot’s   stated   preference   for   SAK   K   or   even   the   superior   quality   of   his

preferred   product  – indeed  it   seems reasonably   clear  that   the  wax additive  
confers certain advantages on SAK K ­ we have not been presented with any  
evidence that suggests that it cannot be relatively easily substituted by other  
creosote products or that the addition of a wax additive is beyond the capacity  
of creosote users like Nationwide. 1 
30. However, Nationwide is on considerably firmer ground when it argues for a  
creosote market in opposition to Sasol’s insistence that the market be defined  
as that for wood preservatives.   As noted, Sasol’s broader definition would  
incorporate the second product, CCA, into the relevant market.  We must then  
consider the substitutability of CCA for creosote.
31. It is instructive to note at the outset that Sasol did not initially argue for the  
substitutability   of   CCA   for   creosote.     There   is   no   mention   of   CCA   in   the  
Commission’s notice of non­referral. 2  When this omission was put to Mr. van  
1  There is a range of testimony from Foot and from other witnesses extolling the particular virtues of  
wax­additive creosote.  See transcript pages 55, 291
2  Commission’s Referral is at page 23 of Record:  “We found no evidence to suggest that Sasol is price  
5

Wyk, the Sasol executive  who testified  at the hearing and who had, in the  
relevant period, headed the Sasol division producing creosote, he could not  
offer an explanation short of insisting that the Commission had been provided  
with a full exposition of the market. 3   More telling is the omission of any  
reference   to   CCA   in   Sasol’s   answering   affidavit   filed   in   the   present  
proceedings.   Again van Wyk could offer no explanation for this omission.  
Indeed the first mention of CCA is made in  Nationwide’s replying affidavit. 4 
However the existence of CCA loomed large in the oral evidence presented by  
Sasol’s witnesses at the hearing.  In this belated fashion, the substitutability of  
CCA for creosote, by providing the basis for Sasol’s denial  of dominance,  
emerged as one of the two main pillars of Sasol’s defence, the other being  
Sasol’s insistence that its opponent had not established that the complained of  
price differentiation had compromised competition. 
32. Given the extent to which the alleged substitutability of CCA and creosote has  
subsequently been relied upon by Sasol, its failure even to make mention of  
CCA in its initial pleadings is nothing short of startling.  It certainly tends to  
support   the   inferences   sought   to   be   drawn   by   Mr.   Foot   from   persistent  
reference in Sasol’s internal documents to a ‘creosote market’ as well as to the  
marked absence of reference to CCA in these documents.  While ordinarily we  
are prepared to accept that the term ‘market’ is frequently used in everyday  
commerce in a manner that is not intended to identify a relevant market for  
anti­trust purposes, the fact is that  even for anti­trust purposes  the respondent  
appears   to   have   decided   only   belatedly   to   incorporate   CCA   into   its   own  
definition of the relevant market.  On the other hand, Foot’s testimony denying  
the substitutability of CCA for creosote was consistent with his earlier filed

the substitutability of CCA for creosote was consistent with his earlier filed  
affidavits and, in this important matter, certainly, he emerges as a significantly  
more reliable witness than van Wyk. 5
33. The relevant South African Bureau of Standards (SABS) regulations stipulate  
the use of either CCA and creosote for preservation of the wood of products in  
contact with the ground. 6  Vineyard poles have to comply with the H4 SABS  
specification, which will therefore be fulfilled by the use of either CCA or  
creosote. As far as creosote is concerned, the standard does not differentiate  
discriminating against NWP and other small treatment plants with its policy of granting volume  
discounts on large sales of creosote.”   
3  Transcript page 453
4  See page  57­58 of the record
5  This is by no means the only example of glaring inconsistency in Sasol’s evidence and argument.  
Others are elaborated below. Note, for example, that another key Sasol argument – namely that the  
price differentiation constituted a risk reduction mechanism ­ is also not mentioned in its answering  
affidavit and surfaces for the first time in its expert’s report.  There are both very important elements of  
Sasol’s case and their omission from Sasol’s affidavits is, in our view, a telling comment on the  
reliability and credibility of their key witness and of the argument presented by their expert.  
6  SABS 457 part 2. The standard for the production of softwood preservative treated poles and again  
explaining the different hazard classes with the different chemicals. Hazard Class 4, Exposure Class,  
Ground Contact . This is a typical pole that is used in fencing or in vineyards or any type of ground  
contact  . Transcript page 453. 
6

between SAK 100 and SAK K. 7  
34. However,   it   appears   that,   notwithstanding   the   SABS   regulation,   the   actual  
degree   of   substitutability   between   creosote   and   CCA   is   largely   dependent  
upon the intended end use of the wood product that is subject to the treatment.  
It is clear that the possibility of substituting CCA­treated poles for creosote­
treated poles for use in telephone or electricity transmission is highly limited –  
the former are unable to withstand veldt fires as successfully as the latter and  
this is the major  reason for the well­nigh exclusive use of creosote treated  
poles   by   these   important   consumers. 8  It   was   suggested   that   there   is   some  
recent evidence of CCA­treated poles being used in these applications, but it  
appears to be common cause that this remains limited and that the purchasers  
of poles for these uses will continue to insist on creosote­treated poles.  
35. Sasol has made rather more of the fact that the complainant does not produce  
poles for use in telephone and electricity transmission, and, hence, that the  
lack of substitutability of CCA for creosote in this use has no bearing on the  
selection of the relevant market.  We reject this argument. This appears to be  
the largest segment of the poles market and we have little doubt that any pole  
manufacturer wishing to expand its business would want to bid for a slice of  
this market  segment.   Nationwide avers that the reason why the electricity  
transmission and telephone poles market is effectively reserved for the larger  
pole   manufacturers   is   because   the   wood   suppliers   refuse   to   provide   the  
complainant and other smaller pole manufacturers with the wood input that  
would allow them to produce poles for these purposes.   Leaving aside this  
limitation – itself a prima facie contravention of the Competition Act 9 – there  
seems to be no reason why Nationwide or any other pole manufacturer would

seems to be no reason why Nationwide or any other pole manufacturer would  
not wish to contest this important market segment and, should this happen,  
there would be no effective substitute for creosote in the treatment process.
36. Creosote­treated   poles   have   also   been   favoured   for   use   in   vineyards,   the  
market segment in which Nationwide is active.  It appears that the reason why  
creosote­   treated   poles   have   historically   been   favoured   in   this   segment   is  
because   the   superior   moisture   retention   capacity   of   creosote   poles   renders  
them less brittle than CCA­ treated poles and so better able to withstand the  
pressure exerted by the mechanical grape­harvesting process.  However Sasol  
avers that this consideration – and hence the non­substitutability of CCA for  
creosote in this application – only applies to the limited number of vineyard  
poles that are at the end of the line and that must accordingly bear most of the  
pressure   of   mechanical   harvesting.     Moreover,   insists   Sasol,   technological  
developments have enhanced the moisture retention capacity of CCA­ treated  
7  Transcript page 99
8  This is widely accepted by the range of witnesses at the hearings.  See transcript pages 12, 99­101,  
206­8­
9  This demands the attention of the Competition Commission.  Woodline, one of the largest players in  
the poles market, is one of Nationwide’s strongest competitor in the agricultural poles segment and a  
major supplier of poles for use in telephone and electricity transmission.  Woodline, we are told, is part  
of the Steinhoff group a large producer and consumer of a range of wood products. Transcript page 30
7

poles, rendering them less brittle and more suitable for vineyard use. Sasol  
avers  that  major   wine­producing  vineyards  have  switched  from  creosote  to  
CCA­treated poles.
37. However, issues related to the toxicity of the respective products appear to  
resolve this debate in favour of the narrower definition of the relevant market.  
Although both creosote and CCA clearly have toxic qualities, it appears that  
relevant EU regulations are moving decisively in the direction of prohibiting  
the   importation   of   wines   from   vineyards   that   utilise   CCA­treated   poles.  
Several witnesses insisted that this was a purely protectionist measure, that, in  
other words, CCA­treated poles had no substantive impact on the safety of the  
vineyard’s product and that the regulation prohibiting this wood preservative  
was cynically designed as a protectionist measure. This is certainly the view of  
Mr. Angus Currie, the head of the South African Wood Preservers Association  
(“SAWPA”) who testified at the hearing, but he nevertheless conceded that  
continued use of CCA­treated poles in vineyards are likely to be used as an  
environmental barrier to the entry of South African wines into export markets.  
He referred to the case of the Nederberg estate which, he averred, was told not  
to use CCA­treated timber any longer. 10   Another of Sasol’s witnesses, Mr  
Stears, from South African Timber Auditing Services, while insisting that the  
issue of CCA toxicity was based on ‘emotional issues’ conceded that CCA­
treated poles were likely to be phased out of use in South African vineyards  
within the next six to eight years. 11 
38. It appears that CCA’s toxic qualities are an issue in other areas of treated pole  
usage as well.   Ms.Tammy Bruno of Botar Enterprises, who also testified at  
the hearing, averred that the World Bank has refused to fund projects that use  
CCA­treated   transmission   poles   because   of   the   arsenic   content   of   the

CCA­treated   transmission   poles   because   of   the   arsenic   content   of   the  
preservative,  a requirement  that  had effectively  precluded  CCA  poles from  
being used in Zambia. 12 
39. Certainly it would be wholly unreasonable to expect a producer in the position  
of Nationwide to incur any cost of switching from the use of creosote to CCA  
if it is accepted in the segments of the market that serve the telephone and  
electricity providers and also the agricultural sector that creosote­treated poles  
are,   for   one   reason   or   another,   the   preferred   product,   particularly   when   it  
appears certain that regulatory requirements will protect and extend creosote  
use in the immediate future. 13
10  Transcript pages 252, 267
11  Transcript page 298
12  Transcript page 130
13  The dilemma confronting a small producer is clearly articulated by Foot at page 151 of the  
transcript:  “ We’ve seen in the World Trade Organisation talks, we’ve seen what’s been happening  
with Dohar that the European agricultural subsidies are going to be substantially cut. The way I figure  
where things are going is that round about the year 2005 and I believe there might be a phasing period  
here of 5 years, I am not sure. I haven’t been able to find the original directive. By the year 2005 I  
would suggest that it is probably going to be necessary to have a CCA free certificate if one wants to  
export wines into the European Union…. I believe that a substantial amount of the wines and the grape  
products which are produced in South Africa from the Western Cape, ultimately end up in the  
8

40. We should add here that we heard lengthy submissions concerning the cost of  
switching between CCA and creosote in the pole treatment process. In essence  
Nationwide insisted that because it operated a creosote treatment plant, the  
fact that CCA was technically substitutable for creosote was of little relevance  
to   it   and   to   the   definition   of   the   relevant   product   market   with   which   it  
engaged.  Nationwide, at any rate, was stuck with creosote ­ its reality was that  
of a purchaser in a market for creosote.     Sasol argued that switching a pole  
treatment plant from creosote to CCA was a technically simple and relatively  
costless exercise.   Nationwide, for its part, insisted that switching involved  
considerable expense and downtime.  This debate generated significantly more  
heat than light.  However we are able to conclude that while the larger firms  
generally operate parallel CCA and creosote treatment facilities in their plants,  
and while there appears to be some evidence of firms switching permanently  
from one wood preserver to another, there is no evidence of a firm alternating  
a single treatment facility between creosote use and CCA use.
41. However, Sasol has, in order to support its contention that creosote and CCA  
belong   in   the   same   relevant   market,   placed   considerable   reliance   on   data  
which,   it   insists,   demonstrate   that   when   it   increased   the   price   of   creosote,  
demand for its product fell off significantly and purchases of CCA increased  
concomitantly.   However, the data relied upon are open to question. 
42. It is common cause that the price of creosote has increased, relative to the  
price of CCA. Sasol insists that in consequence of this movement in relative  
prices it has lost market share to CCA. 14  Sasol contends that evidence of the  
two products being substitutes is found in the SAWPA statistics, which reflect

two products being substitutes is found in the SAWPA statistics, which reflect  
that the use of CCA increased relative to that of creosote. 15   Its expert, Mr.  
Malherbe of Genesis, produced a table entitled “Changes in Sales” which is  
reproduced and discussed below. Sasol also claims to have lost market share  
to Suprachem, the other producer of creosote.  The reliability of these data is  
open to question for various reasons:
i. There   is   evidence   that   the   SAWPA   data   relied   on   by   Genesis   may  
include export figures, therefore we do not know what the extent of  
local demand actually was.
ii. We have to rely on estimates by Genesis as to Suprachem/ICC’s sales  
volumes for 2000 and 2001 because no evidence of this was submitted.
iii. The CCA volumes are also derived estimates and are open to question.
43. Sasol   produced   at   the   hearing   a   handout   prepared   by   its   experts,   Genesis,  
European Union. Is it reasonable for me to suggest to my clients that CCA is an appropriate product  
knowing full well  that this is coming ?”
14  Final Argument Transcript page 47
15  Sasol’s first set of Heads page 36
9

based   on   SAWPA   and   Suprachem   sales   volumes,   documenting   changes   in  
sales for creosote, CCA and a third product, Boron, between 2001 and 2003.  
This is reproduced below:
Sasol’s Changes in Sales Figures (in 000 m    3   )   
CCA Boron Suprachem Sasol
2001 133 2 163 210
2003 190 7 184 152
Absolute 
Change
57 5 21 ­58
Percentage 
Change
43% 250% 13% ­28%
GenesisTable produced at hearing sourced from SAWPA data (shaded areas represent creosote sales)
44. Sasol utilises this in an attempt to show that during the period documented in  
the table, Sasol’s sales losses were taken up by both Suprachem and CCA. It  
contends that over the period 2001 to 2003, there was a rise in the demand for  
CCA of 43%; further that there was a rise in demand for the creosote offered  
by Suprachem of 13%, while Sasol’s creosote product suffered a 28% decline  
over the same period. 16 
45. It is common cause that the SAWPA data include pole volumes for domestic  
and export sales. 17  Nationwide contended that insofar as the SAWPA data  
included pole volumes for both domestic and export purposes, they could not  
be considered a reliable indicator of local demand for creosote: in other words,  
that the figures were flawed. 18 
46. At   the   second   set   of   hearings   Mr.   Footcross­examined   Sasol’s   expert,   Mr  
Malherbe,   on   Sasol’s   sales   figures.   He   asked   whether   Sasol   had   extracted  
export orders from its analysis. 19 Malherbe indicated that the figures on which  
Sasol relied did not include export orders. 20 He confirmed then and later, in  
response to a question from the Tribunal, that Sasol’s figures had extracted  
export sales which had been stripped out by his team. 21 However, it was later  
put to him by the Tribunal that in the earlier hearings, Mr.  Currie, the SAWPA  
representative,   in   response   to   a   question   from   the   panel   as   to   whether   the 
SAWPA sales figures reflected   sales in South Africa or whether they were

SAWPA sales figures reflected   sales in South Africa or whether they were  
sales by South African producers for export as well, had confirmed that the  
16  Respondent’s Supplementary Heads p 8, Transcript page 269.
17  Transcript page 262, question put to Angus Currie by the Tribunal.
18  Complainant’s Heads para 3.10, Complainant’s Supplementary Heads page 7 
19  Previously, in a question put to Van Wyk, the latter indicated that certain sales data of Sasol on page  
437 of the record included at least two export orders, and did not relate to local sales. Transcript p 414.
20  Transcript page 
21  Transcript page 389
10

SAWPA figures did in fact reflect both local and export sales. 22 This was put  
to   Mr.   Malherbe,   Sasol’s   expert   witness,   and   he   could   not   confirm   the  
reliability of either the SAWPA or Sasol sales figures:
“   MR MANOIM    : This is, Mr Currie is in the witness box and I asked  
him a question, I said: “Sorry, just as a point of clarity on the Sawpa  
figures that Mr Unterhalter has shown you, are these figures of sales  
in   South   Africa,   or   are   those   figures   of   sales   by   South   African  
producers either in South Africa or for export as well?” and he says:  
“It’s the latter.” I say: “The latter?” and he says: “Yes.” 
MR MALHERBE : So in other words he said it included export sales.
MR MANOIM : Yes that’s how I would understand that exchange.”
MR MALHERBE : Yes let me just confirm that. Okay I think that the  
thing to say here is that  we believe  that our Sasol numbers do not  
include exports, but it’s not exactly the same calculation as we did for  
ICC.
MR MANOIM : Where did you get the Sasol numbers from? Were they  
given to you, are they part of the record, or were they given to you  
under instruction …[end of tape]… 
MR   MALHERBE:   Well   here   is   a   possible   issue.   The   way   that   we  
derived at the Sasol figures for these purposes was from the sulpha  
[this should read “SAWPA”]  figures less our ICC figures for domestic  
market and our understanding from Mr Currie was that the numbers  
that   he   provided   us   did   not   include   exports   and   on   that   basis   we  
assumed that that number that we have, effectively was equivalent to  
Sasol’s domestic sales.   Now it seems as if our impression from him  
and what he said in the record might be inconsistent and that might  
have an impact on the numbers. I’m not sure. 23”  (Our emphasis)
47. Sasol   later   submitted   that   while   the   SAWPA   figures   reflected   sales   of  
creosote­treated poles, they included sales of creosote­treated poles destined

creosote­treated poles, they included sales of creosote­treated poles destined  
for export. However, Sasol argues that this is irrelevant, because even if the  
poles are exported, they are still an accurate reflection of   local demand   for  
creosote.24 However, apart from the doubt that this unresolved debate casts on  
the reliability of the data, the question of whether the treated poles are for the  
domestic  market  or for export markets has implications  for substitutability.  
For example, we have no knowledge of the use to which the exported poles  
are put.   It is conceivable that they were for use in housing construction where  
CCA poles may have been favoured for reasons of creosote’s odour rather  
than because of changes in relative price. What is clear is that Mr. Currie of  
SAWPA conceded that the gain in creosoted poles in 2001 could have been  
attributed to an increase in exports and that this calls into question the analysis  
of substitutability and its relationship to movements in the relative prices of  
22  Transcript page 262, referred to again at transcript page 390.
23  Transcript pages 388­391
24  Heads page , Supplementary Heads page 7
11

CCA and creosote. 25
48. There is similar confusion surrounding the Suprachem/ICC figures. Nall of the  
Suprachem/ICC   figures   were  disclosed   during   discovery,   and   it   seems   that  
Sasol estimated the export figures for 2000 and 2001 based on the proportion  
of creosote that Suprachem/ICC exported in 2002. 26    Sasol argued that export  
sales were removed from these “estimated” sales figures for 2000 and 2001. 27 
We agree with the complainant’s contentions that, because   we do not have  
hard evidence of what Suprachem’s 2000 and 2001 export creosote figures  
actually  were,  there is no way to deduce exactly what Suprachem’s local sales  
of creosote were in 2001. 28
 49. Similarly,   we   do   not   know   what   the   CCA   volumes   in   the   market   were,  
therefore   cannot   accurately   compute   the   degree   to   which   creosote   sales  
declines were attributable to rises in sales of CCA. 29 
 50. In summary then we must approach with considerable caution the assertion  
that Sasol’s data in the above table indicate substitution from Sasol creosote to  
CCA or to Suprachem’s creosote product, and assertions about the extent by  
which Sasol’s market share was reducing, if at all. Firstly, it is clear that even  
Sasol’s own expert was confused as to what data had been used and on which  
a   fundamental   component   of   Sasol’s   case   was   based.     Secondly,   since   the  
figures included local and exported poles, we have no way of knowing to what  
extent demand was driven by price or the physical use to which the poles were  
put.   Dr   Roberts,   Nationwide’s   expert,   pointed   out   that   the   demand   for   the  
alternative   product   could   have   been   changing   for   a   host   of   other   reasons  
unrelated   to   price. 30  Thirdly,   Dr   Roberts   pointed   out   that   the   analysis   of  
switching encompassed a two year period, which was an inappropriately long

switching encompassed a two year period, which was an inappropriately long  
period in which to assess substitutability, as it would increase the percentage  
change during that period. He argued it would have been better to assess year­
by­year changes over a longer period of time, to get an accurate picture of  
substitutability.31 
51. Dr  Roberts  also  pointed  out   that   it  is,  in   this  case,  particularly  difficult  to  
determine   whether   or   not   the   pre­increase   price   of   creosote   was   set   at   the  
competitive   level.     In   our   discussion   of   market   power   we   will   show   that  
Sasol’s pricing of creosote has not responded to that of its competitors.   In  
these circumstances it is reasonable to infer that Sasol’s price level  prior to the  
significant   increases   was   already   supra­competitive.     An   increase   from   a  
25  Transcript page 244
26  ICC figures appear at page 608 of the record. At the request of Mr Foot, we subpoenaed creosote  
sales figures from ICC for the period 2000 –2004, however ICC only provided figures for 2002­2004.  
They advised that the export sales data split was not readily available at the time.
27  Respondent’s Supplementary Heads page 7
28  Final Argument Transcript page 2
29  Final Argument Transcript page 73
30  Transcript page 288
31  Transcript page 289, 269
12

supra­competitive price level may well give rise to a sharp decline in demand  
for the product in question and a concomitant increase in the demand for an  
alternative without suggesting that at  competitive price levels the two products  
are   substitutes.     This   is   the   well­documented   operation   of   the   ‘cellophane  
fallacy’. 
52. The   technical   characteristics   of   the   two   products   –   creosote   and   CCA   –  
indicate that substitutability is, at best, limited in key applications and, because  
of regulatory interventions, is being further constrained in favour of creosote  
use.  The evidence of substitutability that Sasol produced based on, inter alia,  
the SAWPA data is inconclusive and clearly unreliable.   We conclude then  
that the relevant market is that for creosote.  
53. We will proceed to examine whether or not Sasol is dominant in that market.  
We will show that Sasol’s market share exceeds 45% and that it is, therefore,  
presumptively dominant in terms of Section 7(a) of the Act.   
Dominance
54. Section 7 of the Act provides:
A firm is dominant in a market if –
a) it has at least 45% of that market;
b) it has at least 35% but less than 45% of that market, unless it can  
show that it does not have market power; or
c) it has less than 35% of that market, but has market power.
55. The Act defines ‘market power’ as  ‘..the power of a firm to control prices, or  
to exclude competition, or to behave to an appreciable extent independently of  
its competitors, customers or suppliers.’
The creosote market – market share data establish Sasol’s dominance
56. The   evidence   clearly   establishes   that   Sasol’s   share   of   the   creosote   market  
exceeds 45% and is therefore presumptively dominant.
i.SAWPA levies   
SAWPA extracts levies from the two manufacturers, Suprachem and Sasol, based  
on   a   percentage   of   their   sales.   Therefore   Nationwide   contends   that   the   levies

represent a reasonable approximation of what their market shares must be. If we  
assume   that   the   SAWPA   levies   do   represent   a   reasonable   proxy   of   what   the  
volumes   would   have   been   then   we   must   conclude   that   Sasol   had   66%   of   the  
creosote market in 2001 and  53% in 2004. 32 
32  Transcript page referring to page 10 Complainant’s Supplementary Information bundle (“CSI”)  
extracted from page 592 of record
13

ii.Iscor/ICC figures :   
Nationwide relies on information submitted by Iscor, based on creosote  tonnages 
sold, and computes Sasol’s market share as follows 33: 
2002 total market:  36,543 tons
Sasol share:  18, 251 tons
Sasol %     :  50%
2003 total market:  37,644 tons
Sasol share :  19,250 tons
Sasol %      :  51%
57. In 2004, Sasol’s own figures indicate that, as at February 2004, it had 56% of  
the total  creosote market. 34  Furthermore, its own information  ­ once again  
forming part of the Tribunal record ­ indicates a South African market share of  
56% for the 2003 year. 35  In the business plan of the Sasol  Carbo­Tar division  
it places its own share of the creosote market at 53%. 36 W e are satisfied then  
that   Sasol   is,   by   virtue   of   its   market   share   alone,   clearly   dominant   in   the  
creosote market because all evidence establishes a share in excess of 45% of  
the market throughout the relevant period up until 2004, that is from April  
2001 until August 2004.  
58. Although   we   are   satisfied   that   Sasol’s   market   share   establishes   that   it   is  
presumptively dominant in terms of Section 7(a) of the Act, we will also show  
that it is has exercised market power in this market insofar as it has, in setting  
the price of its creosote, ‘behave(d) to an appreciable extent independently of  
its competitors, customers or suppliers’. 
59. Sasol has traditionally manufactured petrol and diesel from coal. This process  
involves converting coal into a gas stream which is converted into liquid fuel.  
This process leaves both ash and tar as by­products. The tar stream is then  
utilised   to   produce   a   bouquet   of   products   which   are,   in   turn,   utilised   in   a  
variety of applications. 37  These products make up Sasol’s carbo­tar business  
which produces a range of value­added tar and carbon products at both its  
Secunda and Sasolburg plants and is a relatively small business unit within the

Secunda and Sasolburg plants and is a relatively small business unit within the  
entire Sasol group.  As indicated earlier the product categories in the carbo­tar  
division are creosote, a wood preservative, a product for the raw tar market,  
DIY and black disinfectants, and surface coatings, mainly comprising primers  
33  See page10 CSI and page 26 Transcript. Note these figures differentiate export sales from local.  
Iscor figures were derived from Iscor creosote sales found at page 608 of record.
34  Exhibit 1, Creosote Monthly Sales by Volume, handed up by Sasol at hearing on 4 August 2004. 
35  Record page 324. This is also  confirmed in Sasol’s Heads of Argument page 50 footnote 77:  
“There is a range because there is a difference in estimate of the Respondent’s share of the creosote  
segment: Respondent’s estimate is 56% (Tribunal bundle p 324).”
36  Transcript closing argument, pages 5 and 12.
37  Transcript 6 August 2004 p 309
14

for road bases and the binder pitch which is sold to aluminium smelters. 38 
60. The Sasolburg plant has the capacity to produce approximately 50   000 tons of  
the tar feedstock each year.   Of that raw feedstock, between 20% and 40%  
could be converted to creosote. In 2002 and 2003, Sasol produced between 20  
000 and 23 000 tons of creosote per annum. 39        
61. Mr.   van   Wyk’s   testimony   revealed   an   important   distinction   between   the  
economic   drivers   of   the   Sasolburg   and   Secunda   plants,   a   distinction   that  
critically   influences   Sasol’s   pricing   behaviour.     The     Sasolburg   plant   was  
designed to produce petrol and diesel from the  gas stream  only and  not from  
the  raw tar stream .  As indicated the Sasolburg production process generates  
some 50   000 tons of the tar feedstock annually. By contrast, Secunda was later  
designed so that the total tar stream could also be converted to a diesel stream  
– hence although Secunda produces an annual tar stream of 500 000 tons all of  
it was intended to be utilised in the production of liquid fuel.  Two important  
consequences flow from this: 
62. Firstly, although there is considerable tar feedstock available at Secunda, the  
plant is not set up to utilise this feedstock in the production of the tar based  
products such as creosote.   The Secunda feedstock has to be transported to  
Sasolburg to produce the various tar products. 
63. Secondly,   because   Secunda   was   designed,   and  the   capital   was   invested,   to  
produce liquid fuel from its tar stream by­product, the alternative value of the  
Secunda tar stream is the value of petrol and diesel. Therefore the opportunity  
cost of using that supply is the international dollar price of petrol or diesel  
referred to as the ‘fuel equivalent price’.  Moreover, a key element of Sasol’s  
strategic plans is the importation of natural gas from Mozambique through a

strategic plans is the importation of natural gas from Mozambique through a  
pipeline, the construction of which is to be completed 3 or 4 years hence. One  
of the core business units which is to utilise the gas is the Sasolburg plant .  The 
end result is to be the elimination of the gasifiers because the plant will no  
longer   be   coal­based,   hence   the   by­product   of   raw   tar   would   fall   away.  
Therefore Sasol predicted that in 3 or 4 years’ time Secunda would be the only  
source of tar feedstock all of which would be priced at the fuel equivalent  
price.   It   was   this   set   of   factors   that   underpinned   Sasol’s   decision   to   hike  
massively the price of its feedstock and, hence, the price of creosote and the  
other products emanating from this feedstock.
64. Mr. Foot avers that there is no semblance of negotiation between Sasol and its  
customers over the price of its creosote.  The price is laid down – for a year at  
a time – in a schedule supplied by Sasol.   Customers are then informed of  
Sasol’s decision and they either adhere to Sasol’s price or they purchase their  
product elsewhere. There is evidence in Van Wyk’s testimony on how prices  
38  Transcript 22 November 2004 page 24
39  Van Wyk confirms that they make 30­40% creosote from the 50 000 tons of raw tar feedstock at  
page 310 of transcript.
15

are   determined   year­by­year.     Sasol   determines   an   overall   price   increase,  
which is then allocated between the different price categories, and they are  
enforced in that manner, with little room for negotiation. 40  
65. In similar vein, Mr. Foot has made much of Sasol’s ability – demonstrated in  
the substantial price hikes flowing from the anticipated changes in the source  
and price of Sasol’s feedstock – to massively increase prices and, although  
presented as a concession to accommodate the wishes of its customers, then to  
announce a price increase well in advance of its actual implementation and  
then to pre­announce a series of price increases over a period of several years,  
well   in   advance   of   the   implementation   of   the   increase   in   the   price   of   the  
feedstock.41   This is certainly a pattern and mechanism of price­setting that  
indicates a comprehensive disregard for the responses of both customers and  
competitors.   
66. Indeed Sasol’s witnesses insisted that they had no knowledge of the prices  
charged   by   their   competitors,   even   by   Suprachem,   the   only   competing  
producer of creosote. It appears that this was presented in an effort to gainsay  
allegations of collusion with Suprachem.  However it seems extraordinary that  
Sasol should not know the price of its only competing producer of creosote –  
it is extraordinary that, in the process of setting its prices with its customers, it  
was never told by them what price Suprachem was charging for its creosote.  
We must either conclude that Sasol’s witnesses were not telling the truth, or  
we must regard this as bearing out Mr. Foot’s contention that prices were set  
independently of any interaction with customers and without regard for the  
price­setting behaviour of competitors.
67. Indeed Mr. Van clearly conceded that the pricing of creosote is not influenced  
by its competitors. 42 He averred that customers are visited and “informed” of

by its competitors. 42 He averred that customers are visited and “informed” of  
price increases, but insisted that this did not allow for the negotiation of the  
price but was rather as an opportunity to explain the rationale for the price  
increase.43 Note the following exchange between the tribunal panel and Van  
Wyk:44
“   MR   MANOIM    :   So   if   a   customer   says   Suprachem   has   given   me   a   better  
price; can you beat it, what do you say then? 
MR VAN WYK : We don’t deviate from this price, because we feel it’s not ethical  
because it’s an open policy. We are transparent. So it’s a choice for the customer. 
MR MANOIM : Okay, so that stays from year­to­year. 
MR VAN WYK : We don’t negotiate any of these prices.” 
68. In his closing argument, Sasol’s counsel attempted to mitigate this by arguing  
that   in   fact,   Sasol   is   influenced   by   lower   prices   of   competitors,   insofar   as  
40  Transcript page 428
41  Transcript page 21
42  Transcript page 430 ’s Heads page 55
43  Transcript page 318
44  Transcript page 429.
16

prices   are   adjusted   after   negotiations   with   customers.   In   other   words,  
according  to   him,  Sasol’s  prices   are   indirectly  referenced,   its  customers. 45 
However,   we   find   the   above­mentioned   references   to   the   fact   that   no  
comparison is made with Suprachem’s prices overwhelmingly strong evidence  
that Sasol sets its prices independently of competitors and does not negotiate  
with any of its customers in this regard.
69. The range of factors and practices outlined above lead Mr. Foot to characterise  
Sasol’s  price­setting   as  reflecting   a   ‘take   it   or  leave   it’   attitude.   Indeed   so  
flagrantly   does   Sasol’s   price­setting   behaviour   depart   from   the   practice  
associated with price determination in competitive markets, that it appeared to  
defy explanation by the learned experts retained on both sides of this matter.  
Both suggested that the Sasol approach appeared to reflect  a ‘bureaucratic’  
style of management where successive price levels were simply derived from  
the   last   prevailing   price.     It   was   even   suggested   that   Sasol’s   behaviour   is  
‘irrational’.
  
70. However,   in   our   view,   Sasol’s   price   setting   behaviour   is   not   rooted   in  
‘arrogance’ or some other attitudinal pre­disposition.  Neither is it irrational or  
bureaucratic.     It   rather   reflects   Sasol’s   decision   to   price   at   fuel   equivalent  
prices   or,   conversely,   to   price   without   regard   to   conditions   in   the   wood  
preservative market.   In short, the price of creosote and the other tar­based  
products is determined in the liquid fuels market.  Indeed in the course of the  
hearings   it   became   clear   that   the   fuel   equivalent   price   is   not   the   only  
exogenous   determinant   of   Sasol’s   creosote   price   although   it   is   the   most  
important factor and it does set the price framework.  It appears that, with the

important factor and it does set the price framework.  It appears that, with the  
fuel­alternative   price   as   the   framework,   Sasol   attempts   to   optimise   the  
composition and prices of the bouquet of products (of which creosote is one)  
produced from the tar feedstock and this process also influences the price of  
creosote.   What is clear, though, is that whether it is bureaucratic inertia or  
irrational whim or a highly rational optimisation exercise – and the evidence  
strongly favours the latter – that drives Sasol’s determination of the price of  
creosote, its decision in regard to the pricing of creosote is not influenced by  
the competitive behaviour of its customers or competitors, and this fact alone  
is sufficient to sustain an allegation of market power.  
71. We conclude therefore that by dint of a market share in excess of 45% Sasol is  
dominant in the market for creosote, the relevant market   in casu .   Although  
this is sufficient to sustain a finding of dominance, we have gone further and  
shown that Sasol has evidenced its dominance by its exercise of market power  
in setting the price of its creosote.  As already noted, we should add that this  
not only bolsters our finding on dominance, but it also supports our finding on  
the relevant market.  That is, Sasol would not be able to exercise market power  
in the pricing of creosote if the boundaries of the relevant market extended  
beyond the creosote market.
45  Final Argument Transcript page 53 .
17

The elements of price discrimination – Section 9(1)
72. As already noted, having established the respondent’s dominance, we must now  
examine the elements of price discrimination each of which must be present in  
order   to   sustain   a   finding   of   prohibited   price   discrimination.     We   must   be  
satisfied:
i.that the practice complained of ‘is likely to have the effect of substantially  
preventing or lessening competition’.
ii.that the transactions in respect of which price discrimination is alleged are  
‘equivalent’ transactions.  
iii.that   the   discriminatory   action   in   question   must   relate   to   price,   discounts  
provided, services provided or to payment for those services.
73. If the first pillar of Sasol’s defence may be characterised as its denial that it is  
dominant,   then   the   second   pillar   is   its   insistence   that   Nationwide   has   not  
discharged   its   onus   to   establish   all   of   the   elements   of   Section   9(1).     In  
particular,   argues   Sasol,   the   provisions   of   Section   9(1)(a)   which   requires  
evidence   of   a   likely   prevention   or   lessening   of   competition   have   not   been  
satisfied. It rests its defence primarily on these two pillars.  
74. We have established that the first of Sasol’s pillars of its defence ­ its denial of  
dominance – is without merit.  We turn then to sections 9(1) (a), 9 (1) (b) and 9  
(1) (c). However, a purposive interpretation of section Section 9(1) requires  
that we step back and examine the place of price discrimination in anti­trust  
generally and in our Act in particular.
Price Discrimination – its place in anti­trust
75. Much   of   the   argument   in   this   matter   centres   upon   the   impact   of   price  
discrimination   on   competition   and,   in   particular,   on   the   nature   of   the   test  
mandated by Section 9(1)(a) which provides that in order for an action by a

mandated by Section 9(1)(a) which provides that in order for an action by a  
dominant firm to constitute prohibited price discrimination, it must be shown  
that   such   action   ‘is  likely   to   have   the   effect   of  substantially   preventing   or  
lessening competition’.   Before turning to a detailed examination of Section  
9(1)(a) some prefatory remarks regarding the place of price discrimination in  
anti­trust are in order. 
76. Whilst   some   contemporary   anti­trust   scholars   are   highly   sceptical   of   the  
negative   impact   of   price   discrimination   on   competition,   lawmakers,   on   the  
other hand, have generally held – and still do hold – that price discrimination  
offends   the   principles   and   objectives   of   anti­trust   and   so   have   proscribed  
certain forms of its practice in terms of anti­trust law.   This is because price  
discrimination is viewed as a threat to the underlying competitive structure of  
the market in which it is perpetrated, in other words it is viewed as promoting  
a market structure conducive to anti­competitive conduct.  We will show that  
our Act mandates this broad interpretation of anti­trust’s mandate and that this  
18

conclusion   is   powerfully   bolstered   by   the   policy   context   within   which   the  
Competition Act is located. 
77. Anti­trust   decision   makers   in   other   jurisdictions   –   notably   the   US   and  
European  courts – have generally  and, we shall  argue, appropriately,  taken  
their lead from the legislation that they are required to uphold.  Accordingly,  
the misgivings of some eminent scholars notwithstanding, the courts and other  
anti­trust   decision   makers   have   continued   to   uphold   the   legislative  
proscription of price discrimination.   While the Department of Justice in the  
US has prosecuted few price discrimination actions, private access to the US  
courts has ensured a continuing trickle of price discrimination litigation.   In  
those   instances   where   private   action   has   afforded   the   US   courts   the  
opportunity of pronouncing on the legality of price discrimination, they have  
honoured the express wishes of their legislators by continuing to enforce the  
prohibition on price discrimination. 
78. Significantly, though, in key anti­trust jurisdictions – notably the United States  
– legislators have carved out a special place for price discrimination in the  
armoury of anti­trust legislation. Hence, as already noted, in the United States  
price discrimination is not enforced through the Sherman Act, the general anti­
trust statute of that country, but rather through the Robinson­Patman Act, a  
statute   dedicated   to   dealing   with   price   discrimination.       Clearly   price  
discrimination is, in US anti­trust history, regarded as a particular species of  
anti­trust   offence,   one   not   adequately   accommodated   even   within   the   very  
broad umbrella of the Sherman Act.
79. In   this   regard   the   South   African   competition   statute,   the   Competition   Act,  
embodies an approach to price discrimination not entirely dissimilar to that of

embodies an approach to price discrimination not entirely dissimilar to that of  
the United States.  While our legislature has not created a statute dedicated to  
dealing   with   price   discrimination   alone   it   has   nevertheless   chosen   to  
distinguish the treatment of price discrimination from the standard approach  
adopted in the Act for dealing with conduct contraventions.  As noted, the Act  
treats price discrimination as a species of abuse of dominance, and, as such,  
accommodates it within Part B (‘Abuse of a Dominant Position’) of Chapter 2  
(‘Prohibited Practices’).  However, it has not been accommodated within the  
very broad ambit of Section 8 of the Act, that section of the Act detailing the  
variety of instances of abuse of dominance.  Section 8 manages to provide for  
the prohibition of a wide­ranging set of practices construed to abuse market  
dominance,   a   section   that   manages   to   effectively   capture   both   specific  
practices   and   general   practices,   that   provides  for   the   adoption   of   a   rule   of  
reason approach to certain conduct while proscribing other forms of conduct  
per se , and that tailors the operation of onuses in an effort to fine­tune the  
treatment   of   the   multitude   of   potential   offences   that   arise   under   the   broad  
rubric of an abuse of a dominant position, or, in US parlance, monopolisation.  
And yet the legislature did not see fit to extend the coverage of this already  
very broad provision to include reference to price discrimination.     It rather  
chose to create a section of the Act – Section 9 – dedicated to dealing with  
price discrimination.
19

80. Why   is   price   discrimination   accorded   this   special   treatment?     We   would  
venture to suggest, even at the risk of some simplification, that, regardless of  
the very different conditions underlying the anti­trust legislative histories of  
each of these divergent economies and societies, the particularity of treatment  
accorded price discrimination has strikingly similar roots.
81. It   is   our   view   that   the   proscription   of   price   discrimination   reflects   the  
legislature’s concern to maintain accessible, competitively structured markets,  
markets which accommodate new entrants and which enable them to compete  
effectively   against   larger   and   well­established   incumbents.     This   set   of  
concerns   points   directly   to   problems   confronting   small   and   medium   sized  
enterprises (SMEs) which, in the absence of a ‘level playing field’, or, what is  
the same thing, in the presence of discrimination, may well find it difficult to  
enter new markets and even more difficult to thrive, to compete effectively ‘on  
the   merits’.   The   influence   of   SME­related   considerations   in   the   legislative  
history of the Robinson­Patman Act is absolutely clear.  Equally clear is our  
own Act’s concern with the development of small business – it is telling that  
one of the stated purposes of our Act is to ensure the ‘equitable’ treatment of  
small and medium­sized enterprises. 46  
82. There   are,   to   be   sure,   considerations   of   ‘fairness’   that   underlie   this   bid   to  
ensure ‘equitable treatment’ for small and large business.  It is manifestly clear  
that the drafters of the Robinson­Patman Act also responded to the perceived  
inequity embodied in the inability of small traders to acquire stock at the same  
prices as those available to their larger competitors.
83. While incorporating considerations of equity into anti­trust analysis may be  
anathema to an anti­trust approach that insists on the sole claim of a ‘pure’

anathema to an anti­trust approach that insists on the sole claim of a ‘pure’  
consumer   welfare   standard,  one  that  is  solely   referenced  by  a  reduction  in  
output or an increase in price, the utilisation, in selected, though important,  
instances of a fairness standard is not alien to our Act and practice.  Certainly,  
in merger analysis, considerations of public interest – which are partly, if not  
entirely, driven by considerations of ‘equity’– are explicitly present and the  
needs of small business find expression in the definition  of public interest.  
Moreover,   SMEs   are   specifically   given   consideration   in   exemption  
proceedings, whereby they are afforded immunity from prosecution under the  
exemption provisions under Section 10 of the Act. The mere fact that equity  
considerations sit uncomfortably in competition  economics orthodoxy is no  
warrant for ignoring our legislature’s express desire that they play a role in our  
decisions.
84. However, the element of equity that underpins certain of the Act’s concerns to  
protect small business – and it is precisely the element  of ‘protection’ that  
most offends anti­trust orthodoxy – should not detract from the substantive  
46  see Section 2(e) (‘purpose of Act’).  Additional indications of the importance accorded by the  
drafters to the development of SMEs are contained in Section 10(3)(b)(ii) (‘exemptions’) and Section  
12A(3)(c) ‘(consideration of mergers’)
20

competition considerations that accord small business a special place in anti­
trust history and in its contemporary practice.  
85. It is the oft­proclaimed mantra ‘protect competition, not competitors’ that is  
usually invoked by those seeking to deny small business a special place in  
anti­trust considerations. As with many frequently repeated pieces of rhetoric,  
this one contains more than a grain of truth and serves as a valuable cautionary  
for   anti­trust   authorities   who   are   regularly   confronted   by   competitors  
opportunistically  seeking to invoke competition  legislation  to advance their  
own narrow interests even when the conduct of their opponents is manifestly  
pro­competitive or pro­consumers.
86. It   is   however   often   a   feature   of   even   good   pieces   of   rhetoric   that   they  
camouflage   at   least   as   much   as   they   reveal.     In   this   instance,   the   obvious  
rejoinder   to   the   ‘protect   competition,   not   competitors’   mantra,   is   one   that  
insists ‘no competitors, no competition’.  And just as those who adhere to the  
better­known mantra can claim a solid intellectual foundation for their views –  
one that rests on a narrow, focused view of the meaning of competition – so  
too can those more anxious to secure the underpinnings for a robust population  
of SMEs find support in anti­trust history and in its contemporary practice.   In  
short, those who deem anti­trust’s mandate to extend to the securing of pro­
competitive   market   structures,   may   be   less   troubled   at   using   competition  
enforcement to secure conditions favourable to the entry and strengthening of  
SMEs, particularly when the practices that disfavour the latter are themselves  
not practices that promote competition on the merits.
87. In our view the relevant, that is, the  South African , legal and political economy  
context   favours   competition   enforcement   that   is   concerned   to   protect   the

context   favours   competition   enforcement   that   is   concerned   to   protect   the  
market mechanism from conduct that has the effect of undermining it.   The  
expressed concerns of the South African lawmakers and the policy planners  
support this finding.   This is powerfully manifest, inter alia, in an industrial  
policy   that   places   the   development   of   SMEs   at   the   centre   of   attempts   to  
improve the workings of the market mechanism.  This conclusion is grounded  
not only in an examination of the general industrial policy context in which  
concern for SME development looms large but also in an examination of the  
Act itself.   
88. The Competition Act is, itself, punctuated with references to the legislature’s  
desire   that   the   statute   should   promote   market   access   and   equality   of  
opportunity particularly, in this field, where small enterprise is concerned.  As  
noted references to equality of opportunity are to be found in the Preamble to  
the Act, and the promotion of small business is specifically provided for in  
Section 2(e), which expresses one of the ‘purposes’ of the Act, as well as in  
the consideration of applications for exemption (Section 10(3)(b)(ii)) and the  
evaluation   of   mergers   (Section   12A(3)(c).     In   fact   the   Explanatory  
Memorandum  which  accompanied  the   publication   of  the  draft   Competition  
Bill   explicitly   notes   the   intention   of   the   policy­makers   to   support   SME  
21

developments   through   the   instrumentality   of   the   Competition   Act. 47    The  
Department  of Trade  and Industry  has recently  released  a report  surveying  
SME development in   South Africa and it concludes that while entry barriers  
for SMEs are relatively low, the long­term success rates of these entrants is  
markedly low. 48  Even the President’s address at the opening of Parliament in  
2005 saw fit to record the urgency with which Government viewed support for  
SME development. 49 
89. The   Act   is   clearly   concerned   to   promote   market   access   for   SMEs   and   an  
important  mechanism  by which  it seeks to do so is by ensuring ‘equitable  
treatment’.  Price discrimination – conduct that is, per definition, inequitable ­  
is explicitly proscribed by the Act, it is not, in other words part of a general  
category of exclusionary practices.   In short, the legislature proscribed price  
discrimination perpetrated by dominant firms because of the threat it poses to  
its victims, these being a competitive and accessible market structure and the  
small firms that animate it, potentially robust, though still slender, saplings  
that will not take root in the face of treatment that is manifestly inequitable  
relative to that accorded their better resourced competitors. This then is why  
Section 9 has been carved out of the general abuse of dominance provisions: it  
is uniquely concerned with the structural impact of abuse of dominance and it  
is recognised that its victims are most likely to be small customers. 
90. However, in the Act’s formulation of the prohibition of price discrimination,  
certain limiting principles are embodied.  There is, in other words, no basis to  
conclude   that   Section   9   constitutes   a   blanket   prohibition   on   price  
differentiation or on the commercially important and widespread practice of  
discounting   even  when  these  pricing   practices  explicitly  favour  large  firms

discounting   even  when  these  pricing   practices  explicitly  favour  large  firms  
over small firms. Hence, and in significant contrast with the Robinson­Patman  
Act,   in   our   Act   the   offence   of   price   discrimination   is   limited   to   dominant  
firms. Moreover, Section 9(1) specifies certain elements to which any act of  
price   differentiation   must   conform   if   it   is   to   constitute   prohibited   price  
discrimination.  And then a series of defences, many of which were developed  
piece­meal over the course of many years of US and European jurisprudence,  
are explicitly provided for in Section 9(2). Section 9 cannot therefore be read  
as an omnibus prohibition of the practice of differentiating on price.  Rather,  
proscription of the practice of price differentiation is confined to particular,  
specified circumstances.
Section 9(1)(a) ­ A substantial lessening of competition
47  At page 63 : “The overriding objective of competition policy and its associated instruments is the  
promotion of competition in order to underpin economic efficency and adaptability;  international  
competitiveness; the market access of SMMEs…”
48  DTI ­ Annual Review of Small Business 2003
49  Address of the President of South Africa, Thabo Mbeki, at the Second Joint Sitting of the Third  
Democratic Parliament Cape Town: February 11, 2005 at page 8 where reference is made to ‘progress  
made   in   setting   up   the   Small   Enterprise   Development   Agency,   to   improve   our   government’s  
performance in the critical area of the development of small and medium enterprises.’
22

91. Sasol’s   case,   as   we   have   already   noted,   rests   heavily   on   disposing   of  
Nationwide’s   case   on   the   interpretive   hurdle   of   section   9(1)(a)   of   the   Act.  
Sasol   advances   an   interpretation   of   section   9(1)(a)   that   would   require   the  
complainant to prove actual harm to consumer welfare. Granted Sasol does not  
say so in so many words, but its critique of this lacuna in the complainant’s  
evidence   amounts   to   exactly   this.   Because,   on   this   standard,   because  
Nationwide cannot demonstrate that the increased production costs incurred in  
consequence of Sasol’s discrimination harm the market for treated poles, it  
must fail.
92. Mr Foot for his part concedes that he has not been able to show that the price  
discrimination   has   led   to   higher   prices   or   lower   output   in   the   market   for  
treated poles. But he does not concede Sasol’s interpretation of Section 9(1)
(a).
93. Mr. Foot’s rejection of Sasol’s interpretation of Section 9(1)(a) finds support  
in the entire architecture of the Act.  Chapter 2 deals with prohibited practices  
in   four   categories.     Section   4   deals   with   restrictive   horizontal   practices,  
Section 5 with restrictive vertical practices, Section 8 with abuse of dominance  
and Section 9 with price discrimination – as we have already stated, the act of  
prohibited   price   discrimination   can   only   be   committed   by   a   firm   that   is  
dominant  as defined in Section 7 of the Act.   Each of sections 4, 5 and 8  
define two types of prohibited practices.  On the one hand there are a number  
of clearly identified acts that are prohibited – hence Section 4(1)(b) prohibits a  
number of specified horizontal agreements; Section 5(2) specifically prohibits  
the practice of minimum resale price maintenance; Sections 8(a), (b) and (d)  
prohibit   a   number   of   identified   abuses   of   dominance.     Section   9   which

prohibit   a   number   of   identified   abuses   of   dominance.     Section   9   which  
specifically prohibits price discrimination by a dominant firm belongs to this  
genus of restrictive practice.  For convenience we refer to these as the ‘named  
anti­competitive acts’.
94. On the other hand each of sections 4,5 and 8 also prohibits a general category  
of acts whose effect is to undermine competition – these are to be found in  
Sections 4(1)(a), 5(1) and 8(c).   We will refer to these as the ‘general anti­
competitive acts’.
95. Note the difference in the way that these two categories of anti­competitive  
acts are treated.   Where the general anti­competitive acts are concerned the  
complainant   has,   in   order   to   secure   a   conviction,   to   establish   that   the   act  
complained of is anti­competitive in its effect.  This is the complainant’s onus  
– it does not avail him to simply describe the elements of the act, he must  
establish the anti­competitive consequences that flow from it.
96. However   where   the   named   anti­competitive   acts   are   concerned   the   onus  
imposed upon the complainant is simply to establish the elements of the act.  
In respect of Sections 4(1)(b), 5(2) and 8(a) and (b) this alone is sufficient to  
secure a conviction.  In respect of the named anti­competitive acts in the sub­
sections   of   Section   8(d),   should   the   complainant   successfully   establish   the  
23

elements of the acts there named, the respondent is entitled to defend itself by  
showing that the anti­competitive effect which is presumed by the acts named  
in sections 8(d)(i)­(v) is outweighed by ‘technological, efficiency or other pro­
competitive gains’.  However in respect of each of these acts named in 8(d)(i)­
(v)  the anti­competitive effect is presumed once the elements of the act have  
been   established   although   it   is   contemplated   that   countervailing   pro­
competitive   gains   may   lead   to   a   net   pro­competitive   effect   and   so   the  
respondent is invited to prove these countervailing gains if he can.
97. Section   9  is   a  clear   example   of  a   named   anti­competitive   act   –  it   is   price  
discrimination that is so named.  Section 9(1)(a)­(c) establishes the elements,  
all of which have to be established in order for the act of price discrimination  
to constitute  prohibited price discrimination, in much the same way as Section  
4(b)(i)­(iii) specifies the elements, one of which must be established,  for a  
horizontal practice to constitute a  prohibited horizontal practice.  In short the  
architecture of the act suggests strongly that Section 9(1)(a) is not structured to  
constitute the demanding hurdle that Sasol contends for.   Certainly the other  
two elements that must be established – ‘equivalence’ in Section (9)(1)(b) and  
the subject matter of the discrimination in Section (9)(1)(c) – cannot, at the  
wildest stretch of the imagination, be construed as similarly onerous hurdles as  
that contended for in respect of 9(1)(a)..   There can be no doubt about their  
status as simply elements of the act and it would be peculiar, to say the least,  
to incorporate under a single subheading two elements and a defence – this is  
completely at odds with the rest of the architecture of the Act.
98. However, it is the presence and the contents of Section 9(2) that, in our view,

98. However, it is the presence and the contents of Section 9(2) that, in our view,  
puts this matter  to rest.   This is the sub­section of Section 9 in which the  
defences are specifically incorporated.  They are defences interestingly distinct  
from   the   countervailing   pro­competitive   gains   contemplated   in   the   defence  
made available to Section 8(d) defendants.  The defences in 9(2) relate to cost­
based justifications and several incidental phenomena – in other words our Act  
does   not   even   contemplate   the   prospect   of   pro­competitive   consequences  
flowing from price discrimination.  Once the dominance of the perpetrator and  
the  elements  of  the  act  are  established   it  is prohibited  price   discrimination  
unless one of the justifications listed in 9(2) can be proven.
99. Why, though, was it thought necessary to create a special section of the act to  
deal   with   price   discrimination?     There   were   undoubtedly   practical  
considerations.  It is a long and cumbersone section and the elements of the act  
and the defences are specified in considerable detail – this was done, we will  
argue,   precisely   to   limit   the   instances   of   price   differentiation   that   are  
proscribed.  But, in our view, the overriding reason for the separation is given  
by the policy context  that accounts  for the legislature’s  concern with price  
discrimination   in   the   first   place   and   provides   further   reason   for   why   the  
legislature   could   not   have   intended   the   complainant   to   establish   the   anti­
competitive  effect of price discrimination.    Mr. Foot has clearly  articulated  
this argument and, in so doing, is on all fours with the legislature’s concern  
with the prospects of small business.  
24

100. Mr. Foot argues that a small business is the most likely complainant in a price  
discrimination case.   Foot points out that on a consumer welfare test small  
business will always fail, precisely because it is not able to correlate harm that  
is inflicted upon it to harm that is inflicted on the broader market.   A small  
firm will always be met with the response that its troubles are, in relation to  
the market as a whole,  de minimus , that is, that they have little, if any, effect  
on competition in the market as a whole.
101. We agree. It is unlikely that a discriminator will discriminate against a large  
customer unless that customer is also a competitor.   However were such an  
instance of discrimination to occur it is more likely to be met by a claim based  
upon section 8(c), one of the category of general restrictive practices where an  
anti­competitive effect has to be established by the complainant.  This is why  
we   have   a   separate   section   9.     The   legislature   indeed   contemplated   that  
complainants   under   section   9   –   who   will   generally   be   small   enterprises   ­  
would  not   be  able   to  show  the   sort  of  consumer  welfare  harms  that  Sasol  
contends are contemplated as the test, but who nevertheless need to have a  
remedy against conduct that might exclude them from access to markets or  
limit their ability to compete in those markets on the merits.  Thus Section 9  
was enacted.
102. In   short,   what   the   legislature   wanted   in   section   9(1)(a)   was   to   create   a  
threshold,   but   a   low   one   that   related   not   to   competitive   harm         but   to  
competitive   relevance. The legislature in availing small firms to bring cases  
and to switch the onus to the dominant firm did not want them faced with an  
evidential burden they could never meet. It did not want them to become non­  
suited   at   the   very   next   hurdle   after   establishing   dominance   by   the  
discriminator.

discriminator. 
103. Had   Section   9(1)(a)   been   omitted   in   its   entirety,   that   is   if  it   had  not   been  
included as one of the elements of the act of prohibited price discrimination,  
then   Section   9   would   have   been   consumer   protection   legislation   pure   and  
simple. A mere act of discrimination that met the tests in Sections (9)(1)(b)  
and   (c)   but   not   that   in   Section   9(1)(a)   would   be   unlawful   even   if   the  
complainant was not itself a player in a market but just an ultimate consumer  
of   the   products   of   the   dominant   firm.   Thus   subsection   9(1)(a)   invites   a  
complainant to establish a competition relevance to his complaint but does not  
require proof of some standard of harm as contended for by Sasol.  When the  
legislature  asks is it ‘likely’  it is asking us to situate  the complaint  as one  
relevant   to   competition.   When   it   asks   is   it   ‘substantial’   it   invites   us   to  
distinguish the trivial effect from the weightier.
104. Mr   Foot   effectively   responds   by   demonstrating   that   he   is   not   merely   an  
individual  consumer  of  creosote  who purchases  it  to  coat  his  fence  on the  
weekend. If that were the case he would have no basis for approaching the  
Tribunal, he would found no cause of action under the Competition Act.  What  
distinguishes Foot from that individual  consumer is that he is a competing  
25

producer   of   goods,   treated   poles,   in   which   the   subject­matter   of   the  
discrimination, creosote, is a crucial input in his production process and thus  
Sasol’s   quantitatively   substantial   discrimination,   persisting   year   after   year,  
places and other small customers at an ongoing disadvantage relative to other  
competing producers of treated poles. Hence he has established the  relevance 
of the act of discrimination to  competition and meets the element of  likely. If  
something   is   not   relevant   to   competition   –   as   would   be   the   case   of   the  
individual consumer cited above ­ it is for that reason not   likely  to have an  
effect   on   it.     This   lack   of   ‘relevance’   is   also   likely   to   apply   in   respect   of  
discrimination between consumers in separate markets.
105. Moreover, the sub­ section also requires  substantiality as an element. Thus if  
Mr Foot was being discriminated against by the Post Office in the price of his  
stamps for his envelopes that accompany the invoices to his customers this  
would   not   be   considered   a   substantial  input   cost,   albeit   an   input   cost.   In  
contrast   a   more   significant   input   cost   that   might   put   him   at   a   competitive  
disadvantage to those of his competitors who benefit from the discrimination  
may meet the standard of substantiality.
106. Does this interpretation embody the danger that the absence of a harm test  
may make competitively neutral price discrimination an offence? 
107. We say that it does not. In the first place such an argument would ignore the  
fact   that   the   legislature   has   required   the   complainant   to   clear   some   still  
considerable  hurdles  of proof as provided for in Section 9(1).  And it would  
also ignore the fact that, after all is said and done, Section 9(2) leaves the  
discriminator with some important defences, those most commonly invoked in

discriminator with some important defences, those most commonly invoked in  
justification of price discrimination, albeit confined, in terms of Section 9(2),  
to a closed list.
 
108. It   is   noteworthy   as   well   that   despite   its   per   se  elements   –   that   is   despite  
belonging to that category of acts in which the complainant does not have to  
establish an anti­competitive effect ­ section 9 is not one of those for which a  
first   offender   would   be   liable   to   a   fine.   This   points   as   well   to   its   unique  
treatment   in   the   Act,   as   a   hybrid   of   antitrust   and   public   interests,   when  
compared   to   the   other   per   se   or   quasi   per   se   prohibitions   where   fines   are  
levelled as in sections 4 (1)(b), 5(2)  and 8(a), (b) and(d).
109. Thus to recap, the complainant, apart from what is required under 9(1)(a), has  
not   only   to   establish   dominance   but   also   discrimination   and   equivalence.  
Subsection 9(1)(a) is about removing the irrelevant and the trivial; it is not  
about placing in front of the complainant a hurdle that it can never hope to  
clear if it is a small firm.
110. Moreover, in this case, as we will  show  when we discuss the evidence,  in  
addition to the elements of relevance (‘likely’) and substantiality, Mr Foot has  
also   demonstrated   a   theory   explaining   why   Sasol   has   engaged   in   the  
discrimination, one that suggests that the purpose of the price discrimination in  
26

which it is engaged is anti­competitive. This evidence of intention bolsters the  
notion of likelihood. We do not need to decide whether evidence of this nature  
will always be required to meet section 9(1)(a), but it certainly bolsters the  
showing of likelihood. 
111. In summary then Mr Foot’s rejection of Sasol’s approach to Section 9(1)(a)  
has both  textual  and contextual  support. If one has regard  to the  policy  to  
which   the   legislature   gave   expression   in   the   Act   generally   and   in   the  
enactment of a stand­alone provision dealing with price discrimination, we see  
that Mr. Foot’s approach is also consonant with a purposive approach to the  
interpretation of the Act.
112. Having now determined the appropriate contextual and purposive approach to  
Section   9(1)(a)   we   proceed   to   examine   the   evidence   that   has   been   led   in  
relation to this section.
Section 9(1)(a) – the evidence
113. Nationwide   has   provided   evidence   that   purports   to   establish   that   the   price  
differential under which it labours substantially impairs its ability to compete  
effectively with its larger and, by dint of the price regime, more privileged  
competitors.     It   is   common   cause   that   creosote   purchases   constitute   a  
significant portion of Nationwide’s costs of production.  
114. Nationwide claims that the price discrimination – the difference between the  
price  at which it  procures creosote  compared to price charged  to its larger  
rivals   ­   adds   between   3%   and   4%   to   Nationwide’s   total   cost   structure. 50 
Creosote accounts for about 25% of Nationwide’s total costs. 51  Nationwide  
argues that the higher cost it pays for its inputs lessens its ability to compete in  
that   market   because   of   the   higher   variable   costs   of   production   that   it  
imposes.52    We should add that in a market   characterised by low margins the

imposes.52    We should add that in a market   characterised by low margins the  
imposition   of   an   additional   3­4%   on   a   firm’s   cost   structure   should   not   be  
construed as inconsequential. 53 
115. Mr. Malherbe, the respondent’s expert witness, calculates that at the present  
differential between the price at which Nationwide purchases creosote and that  
at   which   its   largest   competitors   receive   creosote   –   the   level   of   discount  
between   the   purchasers   amounting   to   some   14,3%   ­   were   Nationwide   to  
receive   the   discounted   price,   its   cost  of   production   would   reduce   by   some  
3,6%.54   Therefore  Nationwide  has an overall  increased cost, according to  
50  Transcript page 318 second set of hearings on 23/11/04
51  Final transcript page 20, Complainant’s heads page 20.
52  First Set Heads of Argument page 19
53  There was disagreement regarding Nationwide’s margins.  Mr. Foot  states  it has an average gross  
delivered margin of about 16% and net ex­mill gross margin is 8%. (final argument transcript page 20).  
Sasol stated it could not determine complainant’s net margin but believed it had improved substantially  
over the past 2­3 years. Transcript page 318
54  Page 450 and 499
27

Sasol’s expert of between 3.6% and 3.8%. 55 
116. Sasol attempts to counter the implication of this evidence by pointing out that,  
despite this disadvantage Nationwide is able to compete successfully on the  
price of its poles with its larger competitors, that, indeed, having acquired a  
failed   firm,   Mr.   Foot   has   managed   to   establish   his   company   on   a   sound  
footing.   Thus competition, even assuming that its maintenance requires the  
continued   existence   of   Nationwide   Poles,   has   not   been   impaired   because,  
avers Sasol, Nationwide has remained an active competitive force. We heard  
considerable   argument   on   this   point.   Mr.   Foot   insists   that   he   is,   in  
consequence   of   the   price   discrimination   and   the   competitive   poles   market,  
obliged to accept lower margins than his more privileged larger competitors.  
Mr.   Foot   argues,   quite   persuasively,   and   points   to   his   audited   accounts   as  
evidence, that he as the owner/manager of the business has little to show for  
the alleged success of his efforts, indeed that it is only sacrifices of this nature  
that have enabled the business to continue functioning.  
117. It has not been possible to arrive at any firm conclusion on the basis of this  
evidence   and   argument.     Nor,   given   our   interpretation   of   9(1)(a),   do   we  
believe that much turns on it.   But it does indicate the absurdities of Sasol’s  
interpretation.   It   is   simply   impossible   to   even   identify   the   appropriate  
counterfactual. Would Mr. Foot have to show that his business was failing in  
order   to   establish   that   its   competitiveness   had   been   impaired   by   the   price  
disadvantage under which he laboured?  Does the fact that he has managed to  
keep a very small enterprise going indicate that Nationwide Poles has suffered  
no competitive harm?  Is his manifest failure to grow from a struggling small

no competitive harm?  Is his manifest failure to grow from a struggling small  
enterprise into a stable medium sized enterprise, capable of challenging the  
largest   players   in   the   market,   evidence   of   competitive   harm?     We   are  
persuaded that price discrimination clearly disadvantages Nationwide relative  
to its major competitors. 
118. We   have   already   rejected   as   a   matter   of   law   Sasol’s   argument   that   the  
complainant   must   prove   harm   to   consumer   welfare.   However   Sasol   goes  
further, and argues that the impact of the price discrimination was so trivial  
that it could not have had an adverse effect on the competitive structure of the  
market.   That  is,  it  argues   that   even  if  the  price  discrimination   reduced  the  
ability of Nationwide and other small producers to compete, indeed even if it  
caused their demise, the intensity of competition in the market for poles would  
not be substantially lessened.  Sasol points out that only a small number of its  
customers are in the highest price band, the band occupied by Nationwide, and  
that competition is adequately secured by those pole manufacturers who are  
not   disadvantaged   by   the   price   discrimination.   Here   is   where   the   ‘protect  
competition, not competitors’ mantra referred to above comes into play: the  
Tribunal’s  concern, insists Sasol, should not be with the fortunes of a few  
competitors, but rather with the intensity of competition in the pole market.  
Sasol attempts to bolster its argument by insisting that it, as a supplier, would  
55  Transcript page 450
28

have   no   interest   in   reducing   the   level   of   competition   in   the   market   of   its  
customers.     Note   however,   and   we   will   return   to   this   later,   Sasol   has   not  
argued that its price discrimination actually promotes competition, that it is an  
instance of ‘competition on the merits’.
119. Sasol has raised the question of its own interest in impairing competition in a  
downstream market in which it has no interest other than as a seller.  Indeed  
Sasol   asserts   that   as   a   seller   of   an   input   it   is   positively   interested   in  
maintaining competition in the downstream market.     Recall, however, that  
Sasol has previously asserted that competition in the downstream pole market  
will not be diminished by the demise of the small producers and so the interest  
it asserts in a competitive downstream market is, on its own estimation, not  
compromised by action that diminishes the competitiveness or even causes the  
demise of the small players in the downstream market.  Be that as it may, we  
are   of   the   view   that   certain   of   the   evidence   submitted   to   us   does   indeed  
establish Sasol’s interest in discriminating against its smaller customers and  
favouring its larger customers. 
120. Monopolists – or, in the parlance of our Act, dominant firms – extract their  
rents in one of two forms: supra­competitive profits or, as the eminent British  
economist, Sir John Hicks, famously termed it, the ‘quiet life’.  In this case we  
have a very large producer of petroleum  and chemical  products seeking to  
dispose of a product – creosote ­ that is marginal relative to the firm’s total  
output.   It has no particular interest in expanding output of this product.   In  
fact  it   appears  that  technical  considerations  limit   this  option.     As  we  have  
shown,   the   commercial   considerations   of   the   greater   Sasol   subordinate  
decisions regarding the pricing and output of creosote to far weightier issues,

decisions regarding the pricing and output of creosote to far weightier issues,  
namely the fuel equivalent price of the feedstock and the need to optimise the  
composition of the bouquet of products derived from the feedstock.   Sasol’s  
primary interest is in disposing of its variable output of creosote, the variances  
being driven by exogenous factors.
121. These considerations, apart from dictating a low level of interest on Sasol’s  
part  in  its  smaller   customers,  also dictate   that  its  focus is  on satisfying  its  
larger customers.   To some extent this latter purpose is achieved by giving  
these larger customers a preferential price relative to the smaller players in the  
pole market.  In a market – the poles market – in which entry barriers are, it is  
common cause, low, the price differential assists in limiting the entry of new  
and small entrants and their ability to thrive.   This is borne out by evidence  
presented above on the impact of the price differential on the competitiveness  
of small firms.   It is also starkly confirmed by Sasol’s treatment of ‘twilight  
treaters’.
122. ‘Twilight treaters’ are very small players who are not able to purchase their  
creosote requirements by the lorry load, as in the case of the complainant and  
the larger customers, but rather in drums supplied by retailers who are, in turn,  
supplied by Sasol.  It appears – and this is conceded by Sasol – Sasol’s larger  
customers requested that Sasol increase the price of drum loads in order to  
29

limit access and growth on the part of these micro­producers.   Sasol readily  
acceded   to   this   demand.     Mr.   Van   Wyk’s   evidence   in   this   regard   was  
instructive.   Though   he   averred   that   the   industry  association   (SAWPA)   had  
advised Sasol to increase prices to the micro treaters to ensure the integrity  
and   safety   of   the   product   chain   downstream,   Sasol’s   other   motives   are  
apparent:56
“VAN WYK:…..So they are trying to get those guys out of the industry,  
but then the industry came to us and said but you’re promoting the  
twilight treaters, because you’re selling in drums to the co­ops. So the  
twilight treater can come back and buy from the co­op and treat, if you  
can   call   it   treat   it   or   dip   it   or   whatever,   and   sell   it   against   our  
customers. And they requested us to increase the price drastically so  
that it doesn’t make it economical for that guy to buy creosote. It’s too  
expensive for him to do his twilight treating. So that’s one reason the  
market   requirement   or   they   asked   us   to   do   it.   It   is   to   prevent   the  
twilight treaters to be active in your market.” 
123. If Sasol’s large customers fear of new entry is sufficiently great for them to  
have demanded Sasol’s assistance in deterring the entry of micro­treaters, we  
readily  infer  that   their   interest  in  suppressing  competition  from  established  
small producers such as the complainant, is even greater.  This, bolstered by  
the   evidence   elaborated   above   that   establishes   the   competitive   harm   that  
accrues to small producers as a result of the price differential, exposes Sasol’s  
interest in maintaining a discriminatory pricing structure. 
124. Our conclusions are underpinned by Sasol’s failure to assert a pro­competitive  
argument in favour of price discrimination. 57  While we concede that Sasol is  
not required to prove a pro­competitive effect – in fact, as already elaborated,

not required to prove a pro­competitive effect – in fact, as already elaborated,  
the Act does not admit of a pro­competitive defence – we are certain that had  
there been a pro­competitive effect we would have been told of this.  Certainly  
the competitive position of the larger poles producers is enhanced but this is  
done by way of a practice – price discrimination – that is not competition on  
the merits but rather that excludes small operators from the market or that, at  
the very least, compromises their ability to compete effectively.
125. In summary we are satisfied that –
• The   discount   structures   for   the   sale   of   creosote   exhibit   a   material  
differentiation as between the most and least favoured customers;
• Creosote   is   a   significant   input   cost   of   firms   such   as   the   complainant   who  
compete in the treated poles market against rivals who benefit from the price  
discrimination;
• That it is ‘likely’ that the complainant and firms similarly situated presently in  
the market and new entrants, will be less effective competitors as a result of  
56  Argument Transcript page 34.
57  It is not clear whether or not Sasol intends the theory of ‘risk reduction’ that was espoused by its  
expert witness, Mr. Malherbe, to represent a pro­competitive argument in favour of price  
discrimination. If  This argument is examined below in our analysis of the question of ‘equivalence’.
30

the discrimination; 
• This   is   a   market   where   small   firms,   absent   price   discrimination,   can   be  
effective competitors to their larger rivals.
126. It  follows that  if firms such as the  complainant  are rendered  less effective  
competitors that this will have an effect on the competitive structure of the  
market   and   so   it   is   likely   that   this   will   substantially   lessen   or   prevent  
competition in the market, in the sense understood by the legislature for the  
purpose of section 9 (1) (a).
Section 9(1)(b) ­ Equivalent transactions
127. The   concept   of   equivalence   is   not   found   in   the   Robinson   Patman   Act.   It  
appears   that   the   requirement   of   ‘equivalence’   was   introduced   into   the  
legislation during the Parliamentary process ­ sub­section 9(1)(b) was not in  
the original Bill. 58  Clearly the legislature sought to limit the ambit of price  
discrimination by introducing another limiting feature to price discrimination,  
one not found in the United States legislation.
128. ‘Equivalence’   is   not   defined   in   the   Act   and   must   be   interpreted   by   the  
adjudicator from its ordinary meaning and its purpose in the Act. 
129. The   Concise   Oxford   Dictionary   provides   several   meanings   for   the   word  
equivalent. We will consider only the two that might be relevant here:
1.  equal in value, amount, function, meaning etc . 2.  (equivalent to)   having the same  
or similar effect  “
130. We would suggest that this second definition is the more useful as it also fits  
the purpose of the sub­section.
131. Translating   the   dictionary   meaning   into   the   purpose   of  this   subsection,   we  
would suggest that transactions are equivalent if they have the same or similar  
economic effect. 
132. Thus transactions may be functionally   equal  – one business class seat or one  
telephone   call   between   Cape   Town   and   Johannesburg   may   be   functionally

telephone   call   between   Cape   Town   and   Johannesburg   may   be   functionally  
equal to another business class seat or telephone call, but they may not be  
equivalent  (a call or a flight made in a peak time as opposed to one made  
during a non­peak period) in the sense that their economic effect is different  
and hence the legislature, recognising this, chose not to bring ‘non­equivalent’  
transactions under the rubric of prohibited price discrimination despite the fact  
that in other respects they may be regarded as equal. 
133. Sasol seems to accept  this approach.   Certainly its expert, in attempting  to  
explain the basis for the price gradations, appears to argue that sales to large  
58  See the Bill dated 22 May 1998  No. 18913.
31

customers are not the business equivalent of sales to small customers. 
“I   would   say   at   a   general   level   this   would   refer   or   reflect   the  
change in value to the seller or the firm of moving from smaller  
to larger customers. Now exactly what that curve of additional  
value  looks like,  it will  depend on  a few  things.  I  mean it will  
depend on their perception of risk, of the relative level or risk of  
the smaller and the larger customers, the risk to them of losing a  
smaller versus a larger customer.” 59
134. The   problem   for   Sasol   is   that   this   has   been   a   post   hoc   argument   by   its  
economist and is not supported either by way of any direct evidence of Sasol  
or   by   the   way   the   discrimination   in   question   actually   operates.   If   Sasol  
reflected the reduction of value to it of the loss of the large customer by way  
of a long term contract, as opposed to spot market transactions, this might  
make transactions not equivalent even if they were equal (sales of creosote  
effected by truckload) and so justify a price discrimination in favour of the  
long­term   contract   customer.   Here   the   non­equivalence   is   reflected   by   the  
value   of   the   future   legal   obligation   imposed   on   the   long­term   customer   to  
which   the   spot   customer   is  not   subject.     Sasol’s  present   discount   structure  
rewards   the   customer   for   past   purchases,   as   we   have   seen   in   the   previous  
section,   not   its   future   purchases   as   would   a   long­term   contract.   Having  
enjoyed a past benefit the customer is free at any stage to switch to a rival,  
indeed since it receives its discount determination in advance of a three month  
period, if it does not resume business it could even commence negotiations  
with a new rival of Sasol whilst enjoying the last quarter of its discounts with  
Sasol.

with a new rival of Sasol whilst enjoying the last quarter of its discounts with  
Sasol. 
135. So   the   economist’s   theory   of   distinctiveness   or   non­equivalence   is   not  
supported by the manner in which the discrimination is practised . Indeed the  
alternative theory for its existence as posited in the previous discussions of  
9(1)(a) is the more plausible, namely that it serves to protect large customers  
against the threat of smaller entrants expanding in the market at their expense.
136. When pressed Mr Malherbe was frank enough to concede that:
“To what extent the intermediate levels or thresholds and indeed  
discounts were determined on the same basis, I don’t know. But  
what   also   seems   to   appear   from   his   evidence   is   that   they’ve  
basically taken the structure that was designed 5 or 6 years ago  
or   even   more   and   they’ve   just,   in   a   quite   mechanical   year,  
updated it every year.” 60
Section 9(1)(c)­ The content of the discriminatory action
59  Transcript page 458
60  Transcript page 461
32

137. It   is  common   cause  that   the  discrimination   in  question   relates   to  the   price  
differential engendered by differential discounts based on past sales volumes.  
Different   prices   are   charged   to   small   and   large   customers,   by   dint   of   the  
volume   of   their   purchases   from   Sasol.   This   is   sufficient   to   bring   Sasol’s  
conduct within the ambit of Section 9(1)(c).
Defences – Section 9(2)
138. Sasol has chosen not to avail itself of the defences provided for in Sections  
9(2)(a)­(c).  Some of Sasol’s earlier submissions suggested that such a defence  
would be forthcoming. 61  However this does not appear to have materialised –  
certainly Sasol’s Heads of Argument make no mention of Section 9(2).   In fact,  
Sasol’s expert, specifically denied any relationship between the lower price  
charged to the larger customers and the costs of that provision:
“So we needed to try to understand what really lay behind this and the  
first possibility was that this simply reflected the costs of transacting  
with   different   sizes  of  customers  in   an  administrative  sense.  And  it  
became quite clear from our interviews with management that this was  
not the case; that although this is a factor, as we heard today, these  
price differences weren’t based on cost, on differences, in invoicing  
cost, in market costs and so on.” 62 
139. There was some discussion regarding scale economies  in distribution.   Mr.  
Foot   insisted   that   there   were   no   scale   economies   in   distribution   because  
creosote was delivered in standard 32­ton truckloads and that a purchaser was  
required to purchase at least a single truck load.  In other words, he argued that  
there were no economies to be gleaned in dispatching, say, ten 32­ton trucks to  
a large customer over a single 32 ton truck to a small customer as might exist  
were Sasol to able to utilise larger trucks for delivering to its larger customers.

were Sasol to able to utilise larger trucks for delivering to its larger customers.  
While this argument appears to have been rejected by Sasol, no attempt was  
made to present evidence of actual scale economies in distribution.
Finding and remedies
140. We   find   that   in   the   period   in   question   Sasol   was   a   dominant   firm   whose  
conduct meets the test required in establishing prohibited price discrimination.  
Sasol   has   not   provided   a   justification   for   its   conduct   that   meets   the  
requirements of Section 9(2).   Sasol has thus contravened Section 9 of the  
Competition Act.  From the evidence placed before us we are able to conclude  
61  See answering affidavit, record page 33, 42­43. In particular at paragraph 26.1, in responding to  
Nationwide’s allegation that Sasol is required to prove elements of section 9(2), Sasol suggests that  
there are efficiency benefits to be derived from higher volume sales, and that large volume purchasers  
provide Sasol with security with respect to uptake of its product. They indicate that further evidence of  
this would be lead at the hearing.  Whatever the merits of these arguments, they were never formulated  
to meet the defences that are explicitly set out in section 9(2). In his closing argument Sasol’s counsel  
explicitly states: ‘We are not seeking to suggest that the differentiation in price is cost related’.
62  Page 451 first set of hearings.
33

that   the   prohibited   price   discrimination   occurred   between   April   2001   and  
August 2004.
141. We re­iterate our view that Section 9 should not be construed as imposing a  
blanket prohibition of price differentiation.   We underline that a finding that  
price   differentiation   constitutes   prohibited   price   discrimination   requires,  
firstly,   a   finding   of   dominance.     In   this   case,   we   have   found   that,   in   the  
relevant period, Sasol is dominant in the market for creosote by virtue of a  
market share that exceeds 45%.   We have also shown, although not strictly  
speaking necessary, that it has market power in this market.  Once a finding of  
dominance has been made the three threshold elements provided for in Section  
9(1) have to be present.  While, in our view, this threshold is not intended to  
impose   a  full   rule  of  reason   test,  nor  are   the  requirements   of  Section   9(1)  
inconsequential.  Finally there are the Section 9(2) defences.  These were not  
invoked   by   Sasol   and   we   believe   that   the   absence   of   scale   economies   in  
serving large as opposed to small customers – for this is what we must infer  
from Sasol’s failure to   make a case for scale economies – is exceptional.   If  
proven,   such   a   case   would   serve   as   a   defence   to   most   instances   of   price  
discrimination.
142. We also note again that this section of the Act is a hybrid of public interest and  
anti­trust.  The poles market appears to be a market with unusually low entry  
barriers: it is a market in which small players could easily enter and thrive.  As  
such it seems to be a powerful example of the sort of sector that the legislature  
had in mind when it outlawed price discrimination the better to realise one of  
the express purposes of the Act, namely ‘to ensure that small and medium­
sized enterprises have an equitable opportunity to participate in the economy’.  
Remedies

sized enterprises have an equitable opportunity to participate in the economy’.  
Remedies
143. Nationwide  has  asked  for  two  forms  of  relief.  In  the   first  place  it  seeks  a  
declaration   that   ‘   a   prohibited   practice   has   occurred   as   is   contemplated   in  
terms of section 65(6)(b).’
144. Given   the   finding   that   we   have   made   we   have   no   hesitation   granting   this  
prayer for relief. This declaration  allows Nationwide,  should it  so elect,  to  
found a claim for damages in the High Court.
145. The second prayer for relief is in the form of an interdict. Nationwide seeks an  
order   ‘Respondent   be   ordered   to   supply   it   with   SAK   K   at   the   same   price  
afforded to Respondent’s most favoured customer.’
146. What this means in effect it that we have also been asked to instruct Sasol to  
place Nationwide on a footing identical, in relation to the price of creosote, as  
that of its largest competitors.   This we cannot do.   Our decision is derived  
from the facts relevant to a particular period.  Similar facts – notably as to the  
question of dominance ­ would have to pertain into the future to justify the  
granting   of   an   interdict.     However,   should   Sasol   be   found   to   be   to   be   in  
34

continuing   contravention   of   the   Act,   its   conduct,   were   it   once   more   to   be  
proved   before   this   Tribunal,   would   lay   it   open   to   the   imposition   of   an  
administrative penalty.
Costs
147. In   proceedings   between   private   litigants   we   have   generally   followed   the  
practice of awarding costs to the successful party.  We see no reason to depart  
from   that   practice   in   this   instance.     Mr.   Foot   alone   has   represented  
Nationwide, undoubtedly at considerable direct as well as indirect cost.       It  
seems only just that Nationwide be awarded costs on the basis that Mr Foot is  
treated on taxation as if his services had been those of a qualified professional  
legal representative.  We accordingly order Sasol to pay Nationwide’s costs of  
the cause on that basis. 
____________________ 31 March 2005
D.H. Lewis Date
Concurring: N. Manoim, L. Reyburn
35