THE COMPETITION TRIBUNAL
REPUBLIC OF SOUTH AFRICA
CASE NO: 72/CR/Dec03
In the matter between:
Nationwide Poles Complainant
And
Sasol (Oil) Pty Ltd Respondent
DECISION AND ORDER
Background
1. The complainant, Nationwide Poles CC (‘Nationwide’), is a small producer of
treated wooden poles based in the Eastern Cape province. It procures supplies
of untreated pine poles from the sawmills and then impregnates the poles with
a wood preservative. In the case of Nationwide the preservative employed is
creosote, or, to be more specific, SAK K, the brand name of a waxadditive
creosote produced by Sasol. Although the Nationwide plant is based in the
Eastern Cape the bulk of its customers are vineyards in the Western Cape.
2. The respondent, Sasol Oil (Pty) Ltd (‘Sasol’), a major subsidiary of the Sasol
group of companies, is responsible for the marketing of Sasol's liquid fuels
and lubricants. The process of producing synthetic fuel releases a tar by
product which is then utilised as the feedstock for the production of a range of
other products manufactured through Sasol’s carbotar division. The carbotar
division comprises a number of business units corresponding to the range of
products generated from the tar feedstock these being wood preservatives,
DIY and black disinfectants and surface coatings. The wood preservative,
creosote, produced by Sasol is utilised by its customers for a range of different
uses including the treatment of poles.
3. Nationwide Poles was acquired by Mr. Jim Foot on the 31 st May 2002 at a
time when its business was ailing. Mr Foot brings this complaint on behalf of
Nationwide Poles.
4. In about August 2002 Foot became aware that Sasol was charging him a
1
higher price for his purchases of creosote than that charged to his competitors.
Foot approached Sasol for a price list which, after some apparent reluctance
on Sasol’s part, was furnished. The price list confirmed that the price charged
by Sasol for creosote supplied to Nationwide was notably higher than that
levied on Woodline, a very large pole manufacturer in the Eastern and
Western Cape and Nationwide’s most important competitor. It is, indeed,
common cause that Sasol’s price schedule for the sale of creosote allows for
discounts based on purchase volumes, with its largest customers receiving the
most preferred prices while its smallest customers, of whom the complainant
is one, charged the highest price on Sasol’s price schedule.
5. On 30 April 2003 Nationwide lodged a complaint against the respondent with
the Competition Commission. It alleged contravention of sections 4(1)(b) and
9(1) of the Competition Act (‘the Act‘). It received a Notice of Nonreferral
from the Commission on the 12 November 2003. Nationwide then elected to
approach the Tribunal directly. In the present proceedings Nationwide is only
pursuing a claim in terms of Section 9 of the Act, the section that proscribes
‘prohibited price discrimination’. In essence, alleges that the discount structure
utilised in the pricing of Sasol’s wood preservative, creosote, meets the test of
prohibited price discrimination and it requests that the Tribunal makes a
finding to this effect. Nationwide also asks the Tribunal to order Sasol to
supply it on the same price terms as those available to its competitors.
Section 9 of the Competition Act
6. Section 9 provides:
2
3
20. The customers consulted apparently preferred the latter option.
What we have to determine
21. We will examine each of the constituent elements of Section 9. We will
commence the analysis by identifying the relevant market. As commonly
occurs in antitrust litigation, this requires us to decide major factual and
analytical disputes between the parties. Nationwide prefers a narrow relevant
market – indeed it argues that the relevant market is that for the product named
SAK K, a particular waxadditive creosote produced by Sasol alone. On this
version of the relevant market Sasol is a monopolist. Sasol, for its part,
contends for a significantly wider market. It insists that the market is that for
wood preservatives, and that this market, far from being confined to SAK K,
includes not only all creosote but also a product called CCA or ‘copper
chrome arsenate’, a product that, alleges Sasol, is directly substitutable for
creosote. This involves an examination of certain of the technical
characteristics of the products concerned. Having determined the relevant
market we then ask whether, in that market, the respondent, Sasol, meets the
Act’s definition of a dominant firm.
22. Because, as we elaborate below, we do find that the respondent is indeed a
dominant firm, we then go on to ask whether the complainant has successfully
established that the practice in question conforms to the elements of prohibited
price discrimination provided for in Sections 9(1)(a), (b) and (c). Sasol has
made much of the proper interpretation of Section 9(1)(a), in particular the
nature and extent of the evidential burden that the complainant has to
discharge to show that the price discrimination is ‘likely to have the effect of
substantially preventing or lessening competition’.
substantially preventing or lessening competition’.
23. Because we do conclude that Sasol is engaged in the practice of prohibited
price discrimination, we then proceed to examine whether or not the
respondent has successfully invoked the defences provided for in Section 9(2).
24. The matter was heard on the 46 August , 22 nd, 23 rd, 31 st August and 1 st
December 2004. The following witnesses testified:
25. For the complainant
i.Mr. Jim Foot, owner, Nationwide Poles
ii.Ms. Tammy Bruno, Botar Enterprises CC
iii.Mr. Angus Currie, CEO, South African Wood Preserver’s Association
(“SAWPA”)
iv.Dr. Simon Roberts, Wits University, expert for Nationwide Poles
26. For the respondent
v.Mr AB Stears, from South African Timber Auditing Services
4
vi.Mr Fanie Van Wyk, Sasol Manager
vii.Mr. Stephan Malherbe, Genesis, expert for Sasol
The relevant market
27. Three possible relevant product markets have been proposed. As already
indicated, Nationwide has proposed that waxadditive creosote be considered
the relevant market, alternatively creosote. Sasol is the only manufacturer of
waxadditive creosote in South Africa, the relevant geographic market. There
is only one other producer of creosote in South Africa, this being
Suprachem/ICC, part of the large iron and steel producer, ISPAT/ISCOR
(Iscor), now named Mittal Steel. Suprachem and refines crude tar, which is a
byproduct of Iscor’s coke production, and manufactures and markets coke, tar
and related byproducts. The company is engaged in the distilling of tar and
crude benzol into 40 different industrial chemicals.
28. Sasol, for its part, insists that the relevant market is that for wood
preservatives. This market, avers Sasol, essentially comprises two
substitutable products, creosote and copperchromearsenate or CCA. There
are other products employed as wood preservatives but their share is marginal
and does not affect our conclusions. If CCA is part of the relevant market then
it is common cause that Sasol’s share would fall below 35% and, in order to
establish dominance, the complainant would have to prove market power.
29. We do not accept the narrower of the market definitions proposed by
Nationwide. This is the market for waxadditive creosote. It appears that there
is only one such product, that being SAK K, which is produced by Sasol.
Accepting this definition of the relevant market would effectively render Sasol
a monopolist in the market in question. While we have no reason to doubt Mr.
Foot’s stated preference for SAK K or even the superior quality of his
preferred product – indeed it seems reasonably clear that the wax additive
confers certain advantages on SAK K we have not been presented with any
evidence that suggests that it cannot be relatively easily substituted by other
creosote products or that the addition of a wax additive is beyond the capacity
of creosote users like Nationwide. 1
30. However, Nationwide is on considerably firmer ground when it argues for a
creosote market in opposition to Sasol’s insistence that the market be defined
as that for wood preservatives. As noted, Sasol’s broader definition would
incorporate the second product, CCA, into the relevant market. We must then
consider the substitutability of CCA for creosote.
31. It is instructive to note at the outset that Sasol did not initially argue for the
substitutability of CCA for creosote. There is no mention of CCA in the
Commission’s notice of nonreferral. 2 When this omission was put to Mr. van
1 There is a range of testimony from Foot and from other witnesses extolling the particular virtues of
waxadditive creosote. See transcript pages 55, 291
2 Commission’s Referral is at page 23 of Record: “We found no evidence to suggest that Sasol is price
5
Wyk, the Sasol executive who testified at the hearing and who had, in the
relevant period, headed the Sasol division producing creosote, he could not
offer an explanation short of insisting that the Commission had been provided
with a full exposition of the market. 3 More telling is the omission of any
reference to CCA in Sasol’s answering affidavit filed in the present
proceedings. Again van Wyk could offer no explanation for this omission.
Indeed the first mention of CCA is made in Nationwide’s replying affidavit. 4
However the existence of CCA loomed large in the oral evidence presented by
Sasol’s witnesses at the hearing. In this belated fashion, the substitutability of
CCA for creosote, by providing the basis for Sasol’s denial of dominance,
emerged as one of the two main pillars of Sasol’s defence, the other being
Sasol’s insistence that its opponent had not established that the complained of
price differentiation had compromised competition.
32. Given the extent to which the alleged substitutability of CCA and creosote has
subsequently been relied upon by Sasol, its failure even to make mention of
CCA in its initial pleadings is nothing short of startling. It certainly tends to
support the inferences sought to be drawn by Mr. Foot from persistent
reference in Sasol’s internal documents to a ‘creosote market’ as well as to the
marked absence of reference to CCA in these documents. While ordinarily we
are prepared to accept that the term ‘market’ is frequently used in everyday
commerce in a manner that is not intended to identify a relevant market for
antitrust purposes, the fact is that even for antitrust purposes the respondent
appears to have decided only belatedly to incorporate CCA into its own
definition of the relevant market. On the other hand, Foot’s testimony denying
the substitutability of CCA for creosote was consistent with his earlier filed
the substitutability of CCA for creosote was consistent with his earlier filed
affidavits and, in this important matter, certainly, he emerges as a significantly
more reliable witness than van Wyk. 5
33. The relevant South African Bureau of Standards (SABS) regulations stipulate
the use of either CCA and creosote for preservation of the wood of products in
contact with the ground. 6 Vineyard poles have to comply with the H4 SABS
specification, which will therefore be fulfilled by the use of either CCA or
creosote. As far as creosote is concerned, the standard does not differentiate
discriminating against NWP and other small treatment plants with its policy of granting volume
discounts on large sales of creosote.”
3 Transcript page 453
4 See page 5758 of the record
5 This is by no means the only example of glaring inconsistency in Sasol’s evidence and argument.
Others are elaborated below. Note, for example, that another key Sasol argument – namely that the
price differentiation constituted a risk reduction mechanism is also not mentioned in its answering
affidavit and surfaces for the first time in its expert’s report. There are both very important elements of
Sasol’s case and their omission from Sasol’s affidavits is, in our view, a telling comment on the
reliability and credibility of their key witness and of the argument presented by their expert.
6 SABS 457 part 2. The standard for the production of softwood preservative treated poles and again
explaining the different hazard classes with the different chemicals. Hazard Class 4, Exposure Class,
Ground Contact . This is a typical pole that is used in fencing or in vineyards or any type of ground
contact . Transcript page 453.
6
between SAK 100 and SAK K. 7
34. However, it appears that, notwithstanding the SABS regulation, the actual
degree of substitutability between creosote and CCA is largely dependent
upon the intended end use of the wood product that is subject to the treatment.
It is clear that the possibility of substituting CCAtreated poles for creosote
treated poles for use in telephone or electricity transmission is highly limited –
the former are unable to withstand veldt fires as successfully as the latter and
this is the major reason for the wellnigh exclusive use of creosote treated
poles by these important consumers. 8 It was suggested that there is some
recent evidence of CCAtreated poles being used in these applications, but it
appears to be common cause that this remains limited and that the purchasers
of poles for these uses will continue to insist on creosotetreated poles.
35. Sasol has made rather more of the fact that the complainant does not produce
poles for use in telephone and electricity transmission, and, hence, that the
lack of substitutability of CCA for creosote in this use has no bearing on the
selection of the relevant market. We reject this argument. This appears to be
the largest segment of the poles market and we have little doubt that any pole
manufacturer wishing to expand its business would want to bid for a slice of
this market segment. Nationwide avers that the reason why the electricity
transmission and telephone poles market is effectively reserved for the larger
pole manufacturers is because the wood suppliers refuse to provide the
complainant and other smaller pole manufacturers with the wood input that
would allow them to produce poles for these purposes. Leaving aside this
limitation – itself a prima facie contravention of the Competition Act 9 – there
seems to be no reason why Nationwide or any other pole manufacturer would
seems to be no reason why Nationwide or any other pole manufacturer would
not wish to contest this important market segment and, should this happen,
there would be no effective substitute for creosote in the treatment process.
36. Creosotetreated poles have also been favoured for use in vineyards, the
market segment in which Nationwide is active. It appears that the reason why
creosote treated poles have historically been favoured in this segment is
because the superior moisture retention capacity of creosote poles renders
them less brittle than CCA treated poles and so better able to withstand the
pressure exerted by the mechanical grapeharvesting process. However Sasol
avers that this consideration – and hence the nonsubstitutability of CCA for
creosote in this application – only applies to the limited number of vineyard
poles that are at the end of the line and that must accordingly bear most of the
pressure of mechanical harvesting. Moreover, insists Sasol, technological
developments have enhanced the moisture retention capacity of CCA treated
7 Transcript page 99
8 This is widely accepted by the range of witnesses at the hearings. See transcript pages 12, 99101,
2068
9 This demands the attention of the Competition Commission. Woodline, one of the largest players in
the poles market, is one of Nationwide’s strongest competitor in the agricultural poles segment and a
major supplier of poles for use in telephone and electricity transmission. Woodline, we are told, is part
of the Steinhoff group a large producer and consumer of a range of wood products. Transcript page 30
7
poles, rendering them less brittle and more suitable for vineyard use. Sasol
avers that major wineproducing vineyards have switched from creosote to
CCAtreated poles.
37. However, issues related to the toxicity of the respective products appear to
resolve this debate in favour of the narrower definition of the relevant market.
Although both creosote and CCA clearly have toxic qualities, it appears that
relevant EU regulations are moving decisively in the direction of prohibiting
the importation of wines from vineyards that utilise CCAtreated poles.
Several witnesses insisted that this was a purely protectionist measure, that, in
other words, CCAtreated poles had no substantive impact on the safety of the
vineyard’s product and that the regulation prohibiting this wood preservative
was cynically designed as a protectionist measure. This is certainly the view of
Mr. Angus Currie, the head of the South African Wood Preservers Association
(“SAWPA”) who testified at the hearing, but he nevertheless conceded that
continued use of CCAtreated poles in vineyards are likely to be used as an
environmental barrier to the entry of South African wines into export markets.
He referred to the case of the Nederberg estate which, he averred, was told not
to use CCAtreated timber any longer. 10 Another of Sasol’s witnesses, Mr
Stears, from South African Timber Auditing Services, while insisting that the
issue of CCA toxicity was based on ‘emotional issues’ conceded that CCA
treated poles were likely to be phased out of use in South African vineyards
within the next six to eight years. 11
38. It appears that CCA’s toxic qualities are an issue in other areas of treated pole
usage as well. Ms.Tammy Bruno of Botar Enterprises, who also testified at
the hearing, averred that the World Bank has refused to fund projects that use
CCAtreated transmission poles because of the arsenic content of the
CCAtreated transmission poles because of the arsenic content of the
preservative, a requirement that had effectively precluded CCA poles from
being used in Zambia. 12
39. Certainly it would be wholly unreasonable to expect a producer in the position
of Nationwide to incur any cost of switching from the use of creosote to CCA
if it is accepted in the segments of the market that serve the telephone and
electricity providers and also the agricultural sector that creosotetreated poles
are, for one reason or another, the preferred product, particularly when it
appears certain that regulatory requirements will protect and extend creosote
use in the immediate future. 13
10 Transcript pages 252, 267
11 Transcript page 298
12 Transcript page 130
13 The dilemma confronting a small producer is clearly articulated by Foot at page 151 of the
transcript: “ We’ve seen in the World Trade Organisation talks, we’ve seen what’s been happening
with Dohar that the European agricultural subsidies are going to be substantially cut. The way I figure
where things are going is that round about the year 2005 and I believe there might be a phasing period
here of 5 years, I am not sure. I haven’t been able to find the original directive. By the year 2005 I
would suggest that it is probably going to be necessary to have a CCA free certificate if one wants to
export wines into the European Union…. I believe that a substantial amount of the wines and the grape
products which are produced in South Africa from the Western Cape, ultimately end up in the
8
40. We should add here that we heard lengthy submissions concerning the cost of
switching between CCA and creosote in the pole treatment process. In essence
Nationwide insisted that because it operated a creosote treatment plant, the
fact that CCA was technically substitutable for creosote was of little relevance
to it and to the definition of the relevant product market with which it
engaged. Nationwide, at any rate, was stuck with creosote its reality was that
of a purchaser in a market for creosote. Sasol argued that switching a pole
treatment plant from creosote to CCA was a technically simple and relatively
costless exercise. Nationwide, for its part, insisted that switching involved
considerable expense and downtime. This debate generated significantly more
heat than light. However we are able to conclude that while the larger firms
generally operate parallel CCA and creosote treatment facilities in their plants,
and while there appears to be some evidence of firms switching permanently
from one wood preserver to another, there is no evidence of a firm alternating
a single treatment facility between creosote use and CCA use.
41. However, Sasol has, in order to support its contention that creosote and CCA
belong in the same relevant market, placed considerable reliance on data
which, it insists, demonstrate that when it increased the price of creosote,
demand for its product fell off significantly and purchases of CCA increased
concomitantly. However, the data relied upon are open to question.
42. It is common cause that the price of creosote has increased, relative to the
price of CCA. Sasol insists that in consequence of this movement in relative
prices it has lost market share to CCA. 14 Sasol contends that evidence of the
two products being substitutes is found in the SAWPA statistics, which reflect
two products being substitutes is found in the SAWPA statistics, which reflect
that the use of CCA increased relative to that of creosote. 15 Its expert, Mr.
Malherbe of Genesis, produced a table entitled “Changes in Sales” which is
reproduced and discussed below. Sasol also claims to have lost market share
to Suprachem, the other producer of creosote. The reliability of these data is
open to question for various reasons:
i. There is evidence that the SAWPA data relied on by Genesis may
include export figures, therefore we do not know what the extent of
local demand actually was.
ii. We have to rely on estimates by Genesis as to Suprachem/ICC’s sales
volumes for 2000 and 2001 because no evidence of this was submitted.
iii. The CCA volumes are also derived estimates and are open to question.
43. Sasol produced at the hearing a handout prepared by its experts, Genesis,
European Union. Is it reasonable for me to suggest to my clients that CCA is an appropriate product
knowing full well that this is coming ?”
14 Final Argument Transcript page 47
15 Sasol’s first set of Heads page 36
9
based on SAWPA and Suprachem sales volumes, documenting changes in
sales for creosote, CCA and a third product, Boron, between 2001 and 2003.
This is reproduced below:
Sasol’s Changes in Sales Figures (in 000 m 3 )
CCA Boron Suprachem Sasol
2001 133 2 163 210
2003 190 7 184 152
Absolute
Change
57 5 21 58
Percentage
Change
43% 250% 13% 28%
GenesisTable produced at hearing sourced from SAWPA data (shaded areas represent creosote sales)
44. Sasol utilises this in an attempt to show that during the period documented in
the table, Sasol’s sales losses were taken up by both Suprachem and CCA. It
contends that over the period 2001 to 2003, there was a rise in the demand for
CCA of 43%; further that there was a rise in demand for the creosote offered
by Suprachem of 13%, while Sasol’s creosote product suffered a 28% decline
over the same period. 16
45. It is common cause that the SAWPA data include pole volumes for domestic
and export sales. 17 Nationwide contended that insofar as the SAWPA data
included pole volumes for both domestic and export purposes, they could not
be considered a reliable indicator of local demand for creosote: in other words,
that the figures were flawed. 18
46. At the second set of hearings Mr. Footcrossexamined Sasol’s expert, Mr
Malherbe, on Sasol’s sales figures. He asked whether Sasol had extracted
export orders from its analysis. 19 Malherbe indicated that the figures on which
Sasol relied did not include export orders. 20 He confirmed then and later, in
response to a question from the Tribunal, that Sasol’s figures had extracted
export sales which had been stripped out by his team. 21 However, it was later
put to him by the Tribunal that in the earlier hearings, Mr. Currie, the SAWPA
representative, in response to a question from the panel as to whether the
SAWPA sales figures reflected sales in South Africa or whether they were
SAWPA sales figures reflected sales in South Africa or whether they were
sales by South African producers for export as well, had confirmed that the
16 Respondent’s Supplementary Heads p 8, Transcript page 269.
17 Transcript page 262, question put to Angus Currie by the Tribunal.
18 Complainant’s Heads para 3.10, Complainant’s Supplementary Heads page 7
19 Previously, in a question put to Van Wyk, the latter indicated that certain sales data of Sasol on page
437 of the record included at least two export orders, and did not relate to local sales. Transcript p 414.
20 Transcript page
21 Transcript page 389
10
SAWPA figures did in fact reflect both local and export sales. 22 This was put
to Mr. Malherbe, Sasol’s expert witness, and he could not confirm the
reliability of either the SAWPA or Sasol sales figures:
“ MR MANOIM : This is, Mr Currie is in the witness box and I asked
him a question, I said: “Sorry, just as a point of clarity on the Sawpa
figures that Mr Unterhalter has shown you, are these figures of sales
in South Africa, or are those figures of sales by South African
producers either in South Africa or for export as well?” and he says:
“It’s the latter.” I say: “The latter?” and he says: “Yes.”
MR MALHERBE : So in other words he said it included export sales.
MR MANOIM : Yes that’s how I would understand that exchange.”
MR MALHERBE : Yes let me just confirm that. Okay I think that the
thing to say here is that we believe that our Sasol numbers do not
include exports, but it’s not exactly the same calculation as we did for
ICC.
MR MANOIM : Where did you get the Sasol numbers from? Were they
given to you, are they part of the record, or were they given to you
under instruction …[end of tape]…
MR MALHERBE: Well here is a possible issue. The way that we
derived at the Sasol figures for these purposes was from the sulpha
[this should read “SAWPA”] figures less our ICC figures for domestic
market and our understanding from Mr Currie was that the numbers
that he provided us did not include exports and on that basis we
assumed that that number that we have, effectively was equivalent to
Sasol’s domestic sales. Now it seems as if our impression from him
and what he said in the record might be inconsistent and that might
have an impact on the numbers. I’m not sure. 23” (Our emphasis)
47. Sasol later submitted that while the SAWPA figures reflected sales of
creosotetreated poles, they included sales of creosotetreated poles destined
creosotetreated poles, they included sales of creosotetreated poles destined
for export. However, Sasol argues that this is irrelevant, because even if the
poles are exported, they are still an accurate reflection of local demand for
creosote.24 However, apart from the doubt that this unresolved debate casts on
the reliability of the data, the question of whether the treated poles are for the
domestic market or for export markets has implications for substitutability.
For example, we have no knowledge of the use to which the exported poles
are put. It is conceivable that they were for use in housing construction where
CCA poles may have been favoured for reasons of creosote’s odour rather
than because of changes in relative price. What is clear is that Mr. Currie of
SAWPA conceded that the gain in creosoted poles in 2001 could have been
attributed to an increase in exports and that this calls into question the analysis
of substitutability and its relationship to movements in the relative prices of
22 Transcript page 262, referred to again at transcript page 390.
23 Transcript pages 388391
24 Heads page , Supplementary Heads page 7
11
CCA and creosote. 25
48. There is similar confusion surrounding the Suprachem/ICC figures. Nall of the
Suprachem/ICC figures were disclosed during discovery, and it seems that
Sasol estimated the export figures for 2000 and 2001 based on the proportion
of creosote that Suprachem/ICC exported in 2002. 26 Sasol argued that export
sales were removed from these “estimated” sales figures for 2000 and 2001. 27
We agree with the complainant’s contentions that, because we do not have
hard evidence of what Suprachem’s 2000 and 2001 export creosote figures
actually were, there is no way to deduce exactly what Suprachem’s local sales
of creosote were in 2001. 28
49. Similarly, we do not know what the CCA volumes in the market were,
therefore cannot accurately compute the degree to which creosote sales
declines were attributable to rises in sales of CCA. 29
50. In summary then we must approach with considerable caution the assertion
that Sasol’s data in the above table indicate substitution from Sasol creosote to
CCA or to Suprachem’s creosote product, and assertions about the extent by
which Sasol’s market share was reducing, if at all. Firstly, it is clear that even
Sasol’s own expert was confused as to what data had been used and on which
a fundamental component of Sasol’s case was based. Secondly, since the
figures included local and exported poles, we have no way of knowing to what
extent demand was driven by price or the physical use to which the poles were
put. Dr Roberts, Nationwide’s expert, pointed out that the demand for the
alternative product could have been changing for a host of other reasons
unrelated to price. 30 Thirdly, Dr Roberts pointed out that the analysis of
switching encompassed a two year period, which was an inappropriately long
switching encompassed a two year period, which was an inappropriately long
period in which to assess substitutability, as it would increase the percentage
change during that period. He argued it would have been better to assess year
byyear changes over a longer period of time, to get an accurate picture of
substitutability.31
51. Dr Roberts also pointed out that it is, in this case, particularly difficult to
determine whether or not the preincrease price of creosote was set at the
competitive level. In our discussion of market power we will show that
Sasol’s pricing of creosote has not responded to that of its competitors. In
these circumstances it is reasonable to infer that Sasol’s price level prior to the
significant increases was already supracompetitive. An increase from a
25 Transcript page 244
26 ICC figures appear at page 608 of the record. At the request of Mr Foot, we subpoenaed creosote
sales figures from ICC for the period 2000 –2004, however ICC only provided figures for 20022004.
They advised that the export sales data split was not readily available at the time.
27 Respondent’s Supplementary Heads page 7
28 Final Argument Transcript page 2
29 Final Argument Transcript page 73
30 Transcript page 288
31 Transcript page 289, 269
12
supracompetitive price level may well give rise to a sharp decline in demand
for the product in question and a concomitant increase in the demand for an
alternative without suggesting that at competitive price levels the two products
are substitutes. This is the welldocumented operation of the ‘cellophane
fallacy’.
52. The technical characteristics of the two products – creosote and CCA –
indicate that substitutability is, at best, limited in key applications and, because
of regulatory interventions, is being further constrained in favour of creosote
use. The evidence of substitutability that Sasol produced based on, inter alia,
the SAWPA data is inconclusive and clearly unreliable. We conclude then
that the relevant market is that for creosote.
53. We will proceed to examine whether or not Sasol is dominant in that market.
We will show that Sasol’s market share exceeds 45% and that it is, therefore,
presumptively dominant in terms of Section 7(a) of the Act.
Dominance
54. Section 7 of the Act provides:
A firm is dominant in a market if –
a) it has at least 45% of that market;
b) it has at least 35% but less than 45% of that market, unless it can
show that it does not have market power; or
c) it has less than 35% of that market, but has market power.
55. The Act defines ‘market power’ as ‘..the power of a firm to control prices, or
to exclude competition, or to behave to an appreciable extent independently of
its competitors, customers or suppliers.’
The creosote market – market share data establish Sasol’s dominance
56. The evidence clearly establishes that Sasol’s share of the creosote market
exceeds 45% and is therefore presumptively dominant.
i.SAWPA levies
SAWPA extracts levies from the two manufacturers, Suprachem and Sasol, based
on a percentage of their sales. Therefore Nationwide contends that the levies
represent a reasonable approximation of what their market shares must be. If we
assume that the SAWPA levies do represent a reasonable proxy of what the
volumes would have been then we must conclude that Sasol had 66% of the
creosote market in 2001 and 53% in 2004. 32
32 Transcript page referring to page 10 Complainant’s Supplementary Information bundle (“CSI”)
extracted from page 592 of record
13
ii.Iscor/ICC figures :
Nationwide relies on information submitted by Iscor, based on creosote tonnages
sold, and computes Sasol’s market share as follows 33:
2002 total market: 36,543 tons
Sasol share: 18, 251 tons
Sasol % : 50%
2003 total market: 37,644 tons
Sasol share : 19,250 tons
Sasol % : 51%
57. In 2004, Sasol’s own figures indicate that, as at February 2004, it had 56% of
the total creosote market. 34 Furthermore, its own information once again
forming part of the Tribunal record indicates a South African market share of
56% for the 2003 year. 35 In the business plan of the Sasol CarboTar division
it places its own share of the creosote market at 53%. 36 W e are satisfied then
that Sasol is, by virtue of its market share alone, clearly dominant in the
creosote market because all evidence establishes a share in excess of 45% of
the market throughout the relevant period up until 2004, that is from April
2001 until August 2004.
58. Although we are satisfied that Sasol’s market share establishes that it is
presumptively dominant in terms of Section 7(a) of the Act, we will also show
that it is has exercised market power in this market insofar as it has, in setting
the price of its creosote, ‘behave(d) to an appreciable extent independently of
its competitors, customers or suppliers’.
59. Sasol has traditionally manufactured petrol and diesel from coal. This process
involves converting coal into a gas stream which is converted into liquid fuel.
This process leaves both ash and tar as byproducts. The tar stream is then
utilised to produce a bouquet of products which are, in turn, utilised in a
variety of applications. 37 These products make up Sasol’s carbotar business
which produces a range of valueadded tar and carbon products at both its
Secunda and Sasolburg plants and is a relatively small business unit within the
Secunda and Sasolburg plants and is a relatively small business unit within the
entire Sasol group. As indicated earlier the product categories in the carbotar
division are creosote, a wood preservative, a product for the raw tar market,
DIY and black disinfectants, and surface coatings, mainly comprising primers
33 See page10 CSI and page 26 Transcript. Note these figures differentiate export sales from local.
Iscor figures were derived from Iscor creosote sales found at page 608 of record.
34 Exhibit 1, Creosote Monthly Sales by Volume, handed up by Sasol at hearing on 4 August 2004.
35 Record page 324. This is also confirmed in Sasol’s Heads of Argument page 50 footnote 77:
“There is a range because there is a difference in estimate of the Respondent’s share of the creosote
segment: Respondent’s estimate is 56% (Tribunal bundle p 324).”
36 Transcript closing argument, pages 5 and 12.
37 Transcript 6 August 2004 p 309
14
for road bases and the binder pitch which is sold to aluminium smelters. 38
60. The Sasolburg plant has the capacity to produce approximately 50 000 tons of
the tar feedstock each year. Of that raw feedstock, between 20% and 40%
could be converted to creosote. In 2002 and 2003, Sasol produced between 20
000 and 23 000 tons of creosote per annum. 39
61. Mr. van Wyk’s testimony revealed an important distinction between the
economic drivers of the Sasolburg and Secunda plants, a distinction that
critically influences Sasol’s pricing behaviour. The Sasolburg plant was
designed to produce petrol and diesel from the gas stream only and not from
the raw tar stream . As indicated the Sasolburg production process generates
some 50 000 tons of the tar feedstock annually. By contrast, Secunda was later
designed so that the total tar stream could also be converted to a diesel stream
– hence although Secunda produces an annual tar stream of 500 000 tons all of
it was intended to be utilised in the production of liquid fuel. Two important
consequences flow from this:
62. Firstly, although there is considerable tar feedstock available at Secunda, the
plant is not set up to utilise this feedstock in the production of the tar based
products such as creosote. The Secunda feedstock has to be transported to
Sasolburg to produce the various tar products.
63. Secondly, because Secunda was designed, and the capital was invested, to
produce liquid fuel from its tar stream byproduct, the alternative value of the
Secunda tar stream is the value of petrol and diesel. Therefore the opportunity
cost of using that supply is the international dollar price of petrol or diesel
referred to as the ‘fuel equivalent price’. Moreover, a key element of Sasol’s
strategic plans is the importation of natural gas from Mozambique through a
strategic plans is the importation of natural gas from Mozambique through a
pipeline, the construction of which is to be completed 3 or 4 years hence. One
of the core business units which is to utilise the gas is the Sasolburg plant . The
end result is to be the elimination of the gasifiers because the plant will no
longer be coalbased, hence the byproduct of raw tar would fall away.
Therefore Sasol predicted that in 3 or 4 years’ time Secunda would be the only
source of tar feedstock all of which would be priced at the fuel equivalent
price. It was this set of factors that underpinned Sasol’s decision to hike
massively the price of its feedstock and, hence, the price of creosote and the
other products emanating from this feedstock.
64. Mr. Foot avers that there is no semblance of negotiation between Sasol and its
customers over the price of its creosote. The price is laid down – for a year at
a time – in a schedule supplied by Sasol. Customers are then informed of
Sasol’s decision and they either adhere to Sasol’s price or they purchase their
product elsewhere. There is evidence in Van Wyk’s testimony on how prices
38 Transcript 22 November 2004 page 24
39 Van Wyk confirms that they make 3040% creosote from the 50 000 tons of raw tar feedstock at
page 310 of transcript.
15
are determined yearbyyear. Sasol determines an overall price increase,
which is then allocated between the different price categories, and they are
enforced in that manner, with little room for negotiation. 40
65. In similar vein, Mr. Foot has made much of Sasol’s ability – demonstrated in
the substantial price hikes flowing from the anticipated changes in the source
and price of Sasol’s feedstock – to massively increase prices and, although
presented as a concession to accommodate the wishes of its customers, then to
announce a price increase well in advance of its actual implementation and
then to preannounce a series of price increases over a period of several years,
well in advance of the implementation of the increase in the price of the
feedstock.41 This is certainly a pattern and mechanism of pricesetting that
indicates a comprehensive disregard for the responses of both customers and
competitors.
66. Indeed Sasol’s witnesses insisted that they had no knowledge of the prices
charged by their competitors, even by Suprachem, the only competing
producer of creosote. It appears that this was presented in an effort to gainsay
allegations of collusion with Suprachem. However it seems extraordinary that
Sasol should not know the price of its only competing producer of creosote –
it is extraordinary that, in the process of setting its prices with its customers, it
was never told by them what price Suprachem was charging for its creosote.
We must either conclude that Sasol’s witnesses were not telling the truth, or
we must regard this as bearing out Mr. Foot’s contention that prices were set
independently of any interaction with customers and without regard for the
pricesetting behaviour of competitors.
67. Indeed Mr. Van clearly conceded that the pricing of creosote is not influenced
by its competitors. 42 He averred that customers are visited and “informed” of
by its competitors. 42 He averred that customers are visited and “informed” of
price increases, but insisted that this did not allow for the negotiation of the
price but was rather as an opportunity to explain the rationale for the price
increase.43 Note the following exchange between the tribunal panel and Van
Wyk:44
“ MR MANOIM : So if a customer says Suprachem has given me a better
price; can you beat it, what do you say then?
MR VAN WYK : We don’t deviate from this price, because we feel it’s not ethical
because it’s an open policy. We are transparent. So it’s a choice for the customer.
MR MANOIM : Okay, so that stays from yeartoyear.
MR VAN WYK : We don’t negotiate any of these prices.”
68. In his closing argument, Sasol’s counsel attempted to mitigate this by arguing
that in fact, Sasol is influenced by lower prices of competitors, insofar as
40 Transcript page 428
41 Transcript page 21
42 Transcript page 430 ’s Heads page 55
43 Transcript page 318
44 Transcript page 429.
16
prices are adjusted after negotiations with customers. In other words,
according to him, Sasol’s prices are indirectly referenced, its customers. 45
However, we find the abovementioned references to the fact that no
comparison is made with Suprachem’s prices overwhelmingly strong evidence
that Sasol sets its prices independently of competitors and does not negotiate
with any of its customers in this regard.
69. The range of factors and practices outlined above lead Mr. Foot to characterise
Sasol’s pricesetting as reflecting a ‘take it or leave it’ attitude. Indeed so
flagrantly does Sasol’s pricesetting behaviour depart from the practice
associated with price determination in competitive markets, that it appeared to
defy explanation by the learned experts retained on both sides of this matter.
Both suggested that the Sasol approach appeared to reflect a ‘bureaucratic’
style of management where successive price levels were simply derived from
the last prevailing price. It was even suggested that Sasol’s behaviour is
‘irrational’.
70. However, in our view, Sasol’s price setting behaviour is not rooted in
‘arrogance’ or some other attitudinal predisposition. Neither is it irrational or
bureaucratic. It rather reflects Sasol’s decision to price at fuel equivalent
prices or, conversely, to price without regard to conditions in the wood
preservative market. In short, the price of creosote and the other tarbased
products is determined in the liquid fuels market. Indeed in the course of the
hearings it became clear that the fuel equivalent price is not the only
exogenous determinant of Sasol’s creosote price although it is the most
important factor and it does set the price framework. It appears that, with the
important factor and it does set the price framework. It appears that, with the
fuelalternative price as the framework, Sasol attempts to optimise the
composition and prices of the bouquet of products (of which creosote is one)
produced from the tar feedstock and this process also influences the price of
creosote. What is clear, though, is that whether it is bureaucratic inertia or
irrational whim or a highly rational optimisation exercise – and the evidence
strongly favours the latter – that drives Sasol’s determination of the price of
creosote, its decision in regard to the pricing of creosote is not influenced by
the competitive behaviour of its customers or competitors, and this fact alone
is sufficient to sustain an allegation of market power.
71. We conclude therefore that by dint of a market share in excess of 45% Sasol is
dominant in the market for creosote, the relevant market in casu . Although
this is sufficient to sustain a finding of dominance, we have gone further and
shown that Sasol has evidenced its dominance by its exercise of market power
in setting the price of its creosote. As already noted, we should add that this
not only bolsters our finding on dominance, but it also supports our finding on
the relevant market. That is, Sasol would not be able to exercise market power
in the pricing of creosote if the boundaries of the relevant market extended
beyond the creosote market.
45 Final Argument Transcript page 53 .
17
The elements of price discrimination – Section 9(1)
72. As already noted, having established the respondent’s dominance, we must now
examine the elements of price discrimination each of which must be present in
order to sustain a finding of prohibited price discrimination. We must be
satisfied:
i.that the practice complained of ‘is likely to have the effect of substantially
preventing or lessening competition’.
ii.that the transactions in respect of which price discrimination is alleged are
‘equivalent’ transactions.
iii.that the discriminatory action in question must relate to price, discounts
provided, services provided or to payment for those services.
73. If the first pillar of Sasol’s defence may be characterised as its denial that it is
dominant, then the second pillar is its insistence that Nationwide has not
discharged its onus to establish all of the elements of Section 9(1). In
particular, argues Sasol, the provisions of Section 9(1)(a) which requires
evidence of a likely prevention or lessening of competition have not been
satisfied. It rests its defence primarily on these two pillars.
74. We have established that the first of Sasol’s pillars of its defence its denial of
dominance – is without merit. We turn then to sections 9(1) (a), 9 (1) (b) and 9
(1) (c). However, a purposive interpretation of section Section 9(1) requires
that we step back and examine the place of price discrimination in antitrust
generally and in our Act in particular.
Price Discrimination – its place in antitrust
75. Much of the argument in this matter centres upon the impact of price
discrimination on competition and, in particular, on the nature of the test
mandated by Section 9(1)(a) which provides that in order for an action by a
mandated by Section 9(1)(a) which provides that in order for an action by a
dominant firm to constitute prohibited price discrimination, it must be shown
that such action ‘is likely to have the effect of substantially preventing or
lessening competition’. Before turning to a detailed examination of Section
9(1)(a) some prefatory remarks regarding the place of price discrimination in
antitrust are in order.
76. Whilst some contemporary antitrust scholars are highly sceptical of the
negative impact of price discrimination on competition, lawmakers, on the
other hand, have generally held – and still do hold – that price discrimination
offends the principles and objectives of antitrust and so have proscribed
certain forms of its practice in terms of antitrust law. This is because price
discrimination is viewed as a threat to the underlying competitive structure of
the market in which it is perpetrated, in other words it is viewed as promoting
a market structure conducive to anticompetitive conduct. We will show that
our Act mandates this broad interpretation of antitrust’s mandate and that this
18
conclusion is powerfully bolstered by the policy context within which the
Competition Act is located.
77. Antitrust decision makers in other jurisdictions – notably the US and
European courts – have generally and, we shall argue, appropriately, taken
their lead from the legislation that they are required to uphold. Accordingly,
the misgivings of some eminent scholars notwithstanding, the courts and other
antitrust decision makers have continued to uphold the legislative
proscription of price discrimination. While the Department of Justice in the
US has prosecuted few price discrimination actions, private access to the US
courts has ensured a continuing trickle of price discrimination litigation. In
those instances where private action has afforded the US courts the
opportunity of pronouncing on the legality of price discrimination, they have
honoured the express wishes of their legislators by continuing to enforce the
prohibition on price discrimination.
78. Significantly, though, in key antitrust jurisdictions – notably the United States
– legislators have carved out a special place for price discrimination in the
armoury of antitrust legislation. Hence, as already noted, in the United States
price discrimination is not enforced through the Sherman Act, the general anti
trust statute of that country, but rather through the RobinsonPatman Act, a
statute dedicated to dealing with price discrimination. Clearly price
discrimination is, in US antitrust history, regarded as a particular species of
antitrust offence, one not adequately accommodated even within the very
broad umbrella of the Sherman Act.
79. In this regard the South African competition statute, the Competition Act,
embodies an approach to price discrimination not entirely dissimilar to that of
embodies an approach to price discrimination not entirely dissimilar to that of
the United States. While our legislature has not created a statute dedicated to
dealing with price discrimination alone it has nevertheless chosen to
distinguish the treatment of price discrimination from the standard approach
adopted in the Act for dealing with conduct contraventions. As noted, the Act
treats price discrimination as a species of abuse of dominance, and, as such,
accommodates it within Part B (‘Abuse of a Dominant Position’) of Chapter 2
(‘Prohibited Practices’). However, it has not been accommodated within the
very broad ambit of Section 8 of the Act, that section of the Act detailing the
variety of instances of abuse of dominance. Section 8 manages to provide for
the prohibition of a wideranging set of practices construed to abuse market
dominance, a section that manages to effectively capture both specific
practices and general practices, that provides for the adoption of a rule of
reason approach to certain conduct while proscribing other forms of conduct
per se , and that tailors the operation of onuses in an effort to finetune the
treatment of the multitude of potential offences that arise under the broad
rubric of an abuse of a dominant position, or, in US parlance, monopolisation.
And yet the legislature did not see fit to extend the coverage of this already
very broad provision to include reference to price discrimination. It rather
chose to create a section of the Act – Section 9 – dedicated to dealing with
price discrimination.
19
80. Why is price discrimination accorded this special treatment? We would
venture to suggest, even at the risk of some simplification, that, regardless of
the very different conditions underlying the antitrust legislative histories of
each of these divergent economies and societies, the particularity of treatment
accorded price discrimination has strikingly similar roots.
81. It is our view that the proscription of price discrimination reflects the
legislature’s concern to maintain accessible, competitively structured markets,
markets which accommodate new entrants and which enable them to compete
effectively against larger and wellestablished incumbents. This set of
concerns points directly to problems confronting small and medium sized
enterprises (SMEs) which, in the absence of a ‘level playing field’, or, what is
the same thing, in the presence of discrimination, may well find it difficult to
enter new markets and even more difficult to thrive, to compete effectively ‘on
the merits’. The influence of SMErelated considerations in the legislative
history of the RobinsonPatman Act is absolutely clear. Equally clear is our
own Act’s concern with the development of small business – it is telling that
one of the stated purposes of our Act is to ensure the ‘equitable’ treatment of
small and mediumsized enterprises. 46
82. There are, to be sure, considerations of ‘fairness’ that underlie this bid to
ensure ‘equitable treatment’ for small and large business. It is manifestly clear
that the drafters of the RobinsonPatman Act also responded to the perceived
inequity embodied in the inability of small traders to acquire stock at the same
prices as those available to their larger competitors.
83. While incorporating considerations of equity into antitrust analysis may be
anathema to an antitrust approach that insists on the sole claim of a ‘pure’
anathema to an antitrust approach that insists on the sole claim of a ‘pure’
consumer welfare standard, one that is solely referenced by a reduction in
output or an increase in price, the utilisation, in selected, though important,
instances of a fairness standard is not alien to our Act and practice. Certainly,
in merger analysis, considerations of public interest – which are partly, if not
entirely, driven by considerations of ‘equity’– are explicitly present and the
needs of small business find expression in the definition of public interest.
Moreover, SMEs are specifically given consideration in exemption
proceedings, whereby they are afforded immunity from prosecution under the
exemption provisions under Section 10 of the Act. The mere fact that equity
considerations sit uncomfortably in competition economics orthodoxy is no
warrant for ignoring our legislature’s express desire that they play a role in our
decisions.
84. However, the element of equity that underpins certain of the Act’s concerns to
protect small business – and it is precisely the element of ‘protection’ that
most offends antitrust orthodoxy – should not detract from the substantive
46 see Section 2(e) (‘purpose of Act’). Additional indications of the importance accorded by the
drafters to the development of SMEs are contained in Section 10(3)(b)(ii) (‘exemptions’) and Section
12A(3)(c) ‘(consideration of mergers’)
20
competition considerations that accord small business a special place in anti
trust history and in its contemporary practice.
85. It is the oftproclaimed mantra ‘protect competition, not competitors’ that is
usually invoked by those seeking to deny small business a special place in
antitrust considerations. As with many frequently repeated pieces of rhetoric,
this one contains more than a grain of truth and serves as a valuable cautionary
for antitrust authorities who are regularly confronted by competitors
opportunistically seeking to invoke competition legislation to advance their
own narrow interests even when the conduct of their opponents is manifestly
procompetitive or proconsumers.
86. It is however often a feature of even good pieces of rhetoric that they
camouflage at least as much as they reveal. In this instance, the obvious
rejoinder to the ‘protect competition, not competitors’ mantra, is one that
insists ‘no competitors, no competition’. And just as those who adhere to the
betterknown mantra can claim a solid intellectual foundation for their views –
one that rests on a narrow, focused view of the meaning of competition – so
too can those more anxious to secure the underpinnings for a robust population
of SMEs find support in antitrust history and in its contemporary practice. In
short, those who deem antitrust’s mandate to extend to the securing of pro
competitive market structures, may be less troubled at using competition
enforcement to secure conditions favourable to the entry and strengthening of
SMEs, particularly when the practices that disfavour the latter are themselves
not practices that promote competition on the merits.
87. In our view the relevant, that is, the South African , legal and political economy
context favours competition enforcement that is concerned to protect the
context favours competition enforcement that is concerned to protect the
market mechanism from conduct that has the effect of undermining it. The
expressed concerns of the South African lawmakers and the policy planners
support this finding. This is powerfully manifest, inter alia, in an industrial
policy that places the development of SMEs at the centre of attempts to
improve the workings of the market mechanism. This conclusion is grounded
not only in an examination of the general industrial policy context in which
concern for SME development looms large but also in an examination of the
Act itself.
88. The Competition Act is, itself, punctuated with references to the legislature’s
desire that the statute should promote market access and equality of
opportunity particularly, in this field, where small enterprise is concerned. As
noted references to equality of opportunity are to be found in the Preamble to
the Act, and the promotion of small business is specifically provided for in
Section 2(e), which expresses one of the ‘purposes’ of the Act, as well as in
the consideration of applications for exemption (Section 10(3)(b)(ii)) and the
evaluation of mergers (Section 12A(3)(c). In fact the Explanatory
Memorandum which accompanied the publication of the draft Competition
Bill explicitly notes the intention of the policymakers to support SME
21
developments through the instrumentality of the Competition Act. 47 The
Department of Trade and Industry has recently released a report surveying
SME development in South Africa and it concludes that while entry barriers
for SMEs are relatively low, the longterm success rates of these entrants is
markedly low. 48 Even the President’s address at the opening of Parliament in
2005 saw fit to record the urgency with which Government viewed support for
SME development. 49
89. The Act is clearly concerned to promote market access for SMEs and an
important mechanism by which it seeks to do so is by ensuring ‘equitable
treatment’. Price discrimination – conduct that is, per definition, inequitable
is explicitly proscribed by the Act, it is not, in other words part of a general
category of exclusionary practices. In short, the legislature proscribed price
discrimination perpetrated by dominant firms because of the threat it poses to
its victims, these being a competitive and accessible market structure and the
small firms that animate it, potentially robust, though still slender, saplings
that will not take root in the face of treatment that is manifestly inequitable
relative to that accorded their better resourced competitors. This then is why
Section 9 has been carved out of the general abuse of dominance provisions: it
is uniquely concerned with the structural impact of abuse of dominance and it
is recognised that its victims are most likely to be small customers.
90. However, in the Act’s formulation of the prohibition of price discrimination,
certain limiting principles are embodied. There is, in other words, no basis to
conclude that Section 9 constitutes a blanket prohibition on price
differentiation or on the commercially important and widespread practice of
discounting even when these pricing practices explicitly favour large firms
discounting even when these pricing practices explicitly favour large firms
over small firms. Hence, and in significant contrast with the RobinsonPatman
Act, in our Act the offence of price discrimination is limited to dominant
firms. Moreover, Section 9(1) specifies certain elements to which any act of
price differentiation must conform if it is to constitute prohibited price
discrimination. And then a series of defences, many of which were developed
piecemeal over the course of many years of US and European jurisprudence,
are explicitly provided for in Section 9(2). Section 9 cannot therefore be read
as an omnibus prohibition of the practice of differentiating on price. Rather,
proscription of the practice of price differentiation is confined to particular,
specified circumstances.
Section 9(1)(a) A substantial lessening of competition
47 At page 63 : “The overriding objective of competition policy and its associated instruments is the
promotion of competition in order to underpin economic efficency and adaptability; international
competitiveness; the market access of SMMEs…”
48 DTI Annual Review of Small Business 2003
49 Address of the President of South Africa, Thabo Mbeki, at the Second Joint Sitting of the Third
Democratic Parliament Cape Town: February 11, 2005 at page 8 where reference is made to ‘progress
made in setting up the Small Enterprise Development Agency, to improve our government’s
performance in the critical area of the development of small and medium enterprises.’
22
91. Sasol’s case, as we have already noted, rests heavily on disposing of
Nationwide’s case on the interpretive hurdle of section 9(1)(a) of the Act.
Sasol advances an interpretation of section 9(1)(a) that would require the
complainant to prove actual harm to consumer welfare. Granted Sasol does not
say so in so many words, but its critique of this lacuna in the complainant’s
evidence amounts to exactly this. Because, on this standard, because
Nationwide cannot demonstrate that the increased production costs incurred in
consequence of Sasol’s discrimination harm the market for treated poles, it
must fail.
92. Mr Foot for his part concedes that he has not been able to show that the price
discrimination has led to higher prices or lower output in the market for
treated poles. But he does not concede Sasol’s interpretation of Section 9(1)
(a).
93. Mr. Foot’s rejection of Sasol’s interpretation of Section 9(1)(a) finds support
in the entire architecture of the Act. Chapter 2 deals with prohibited practices
in four categories. Section 4 deals with restrictive horizontal practices,
Section 5 with restrictive vertical practices, Section 8 with abuse of dominance
and Section 9 with price discrimination – as we have already stated, the act of
prohibited price discrimination can only be committed by a firm that is
dominant as defined in Section 7 of the Act. Each of sections 4, 5 and 8
define two types of prohibited practices. On the one hand there are a number
of clearly identified acts that are prohibited – hence Section 4(1)(b) prohibits a
number of specified horizontal agreements; Section 5(2) specifically prohibits
the practice of minimum resale price maintenance; Sections 8(a), (b) and (d)
prohibit a number of identified abuses of dominance. Section 9 which
prohibit a number of identified abuses of dominance. Section 9 which
specifically prohibits price discrimination by a dominant firm belongs to this
genus of restrictive practice. For convenience we refer to these as the ‘named
anticompetitive acts’.
94. On the other hand each of sections 4,5 and 8 also prohibits a general category
of acts whose effect is to undermine competition – these are to be found in
Sections 4(1)(a), 5(1) and 8(c). We will refer to these as the ‘general anti
competitive acts’.
95. Note the difference in the way that these two categories of anticompetitive
acts are treated. Where the general anticompetitive acts are concerned the
complainant has, in order to secure a conviction, to establish that the act
complained of is anticompetitive in its effect. This is the complainant’s onus
– it does not avail him to simply describe the elements of the act, he must
establish the anticompetitive consequences that flow from it.
96. However where the named anticompetitive acts are concerned the onus
imposed upon the complainant is simply to establish the elements of the act.
In respect of Sections 4(1)(b), 5(2) and 8(a) and (b) this alone is sufficient to
secure a conviction. In respect of the named anticompetitive acts in the sub
sections of Section 8(d), should the complainant successfully establish the
23
elements of the acts there named, the respondent is entitled to defend itself by
showing that the anticompetitive effect which is presumed by the acts named
in sections 8(d)(i)(v) is outweighed by ‘technological, efficiency or other pro
competitive gains’. However in respect of each of these acts named in 8(d)(i)
(v) the anticompetitive effect is presumed once the elements of the act have
been established although it is contemplated that countervailing pro
competitive gains may lead to a net procompetitive effect and so the
respondent is invited to prove these countervailing gains if he can.
97. Section 9 is a clear example of a named anticompetitive act – it is price
discrimination that is so named. Section 9(1)(a)(c) establishes the elements,
all of which have to be established in order for the act of price discrimination
to constitute prohibited price discrimination, in much the same way as Section
4(b)(i)(iii) specifies the elements, one of which must be established, for a
horizontal practice to constitute a prohibited horizontal practice. In short the
architecture of the act suggests strongly that Section 9(1)(a) is not structured to
constitute the demanding hurdle that Sasol contends for. Certainly the other
two elements that must be established – ‘equivalence’ in Section (9)(1)(b) and
the subject matter of the discrimination in Section (9)(1)(c) – cannot, at the
wildest stretch of the imagination, be construed as similarly onerous hurdles as
that contended for in respect of 9(1)(a).. There can be no doubt about their
status as simply elements of the act and it would be peculiar, to say the least,
to incorporate under a single subheading two elements and a defence – this is
completely at odds with the rest of the architecture of the Act.
98. However, it is the presence and the contents of Section 9(2) that, in our view,
98. However, it is the presence and the contents of Section 9(2) that, in our view,
puts this matter to rest. This is the subsection of Section 9 in which the
defences are specifically incorporated. They are defences interestingly distinct
from the countervailing procompetitive gains contemplated in the defence
made available to Section 8(d) defendants. The defences in 9(2) relate to cost
based justifications and several incidental phenomena – in other words our Act
does not even contemplate the prospect of procompetitive consequences
flowing from price discrimination. Once the dominance of the perpetrator and
the elements of the act are established it is prohibited price discrimination
unless one of the justifications listed in 9(2) can be proven.
99. Why, though, was it thought necessary to create a special section of the act to
deal with price discrimination? There were undoubtedly practical
considerations. It is a long and cumbersone section and the elements of the act
and the defences are specified in considerable detail – this was done, we will
argue, precisely to limit the instances of price differentiation that are
proscribed. But, in our view, the overriding reason for the separation is given
by the policy context that accounts for the legislature’s concern with price
discrimination in the first place and provides further reason for why the
legislature could not have intended the complainant to establish the anti
competitive effect of price discrimination. Mr. Foot has clearly articulated
this argument and, in so doing, is on all fours with the legislature’s concern
with the prospects of small business.
24
100. Mr. Foot argues that a small business is the most likely complainant in a price
discrimination case. Foot points out that on a consumer welfare test small
business will always fail, precisely because it is not able to correlate harm that
is inflicted upon it to harm that is inflicted on the broader market. A small
firm will always be met with the response that its troubles are, in relation to
the market as a whole, de minimus , that is, that they have little, if any, effect
on competition in the market as a whole.
101. We agree. It is unlikely that a discriminator will discriminate against a large
customer unless that customer is also a competitor. However were such an
instance of discrimination to occur it is more likely to be met by a claim based
upon section 8(c), one of the category of general restrictive practices where an
anticompetitive effect has to be established by the complainant. This is why
we have a separate section 9. The legislature indeed contemplated that
complainants under section 9 – who will generally be small enterprises
would not be able to show the sort of consumer welfare harms that Sasol
contends are contemplated as the test, but who nevertheless need to have a
remedy against conduct that might exclude them from access to markets or
limit their ability to compete in those markets on the merits. Thus Section 9
was enacted.
102. In short, what the legislature wanted in section 9(1)(a) was to create a
threshold, but a low one that related not to competitive harm but to
competitive relevance. The legislature in availing small firms to bring cases
and to switch the onus to the dominant firm did not want them faced with an
evidential burden they could never meet. It did not want them to become non
suited at the very next hurdle after establishing dominance by the
discriminator.
discriminator.
103. Had Section 9(1)(a) been omitted in its entirety, that is if it had not been
included as one of the elements of the act of prohibited price discrimination,
then Section 9 would have been consumer protection legislation pure and
simple. A mere act of discrimination that met the tests in Sections (9)(1)(b)
and (c) but not that in Section 9(1)(a) would be unlawful even if the
complainant was not itself a player in a market but just an ultimate consumer
of the products of the dominant firm. Thus subsection 9(1)(a) invites a
complainant to establish a competition relevance to his complaint but does not
require proof of some standard of harm as contended for by Sasol. When the
legislature asks is it ‘likely’ it is asking us to situate the complaint as one
relevant to competition. When it asks is it ‘substantial’ it invites us to
distinguish the trivial effect from the weightier.
104. Mr Foot effectively responds by demonstrating that he is not merely an
individual consumer of creosote who purchases it to coat his fence on the
weekend. If that were the case he would have no basis for approaching the
Tribunal, he would found no cause of action under the Competition Act. What
distinguishes Foot from that individual consumer is that he is a competing
25
producer of goods, treated poles, in which the subjectmatter of the
discrimination, creosote, is a crucial input in his production process and thus
Sasol’s quantitatively substantial discrimination, persisting year after year,
places and other small customers at an ongoing disadvantage relative to other
competing producers of treated poles. Hence he has established the relevance
of the act of discrimination to competition and meets the element of likely. If
something is not relevant to competition – as would be the case of the
individual consumer cited above it is for that reason not likely to have an
effect on it. This lack of ‘relevance’ is also likely to apply in respect of
discrimination between consumers in separate markets.
105. Moreover, the sub section also requires substantiality as an element. Thus if
Mr Foot was being discriminated against by the Post Office in the price of his
stamps for his envelopes that accompany the invoices to his customers this
would not be considered a substantial input cost, albeit an input cost. In
contrast a more significant input cost that might put him at a competitive
disadvantage to those of his competitors who benefit from the discrimination
may meet the standard of substantiality.
106. Does this interpretation embody the danger that the absence of a harm test
may make competitively neutral price discrimination an offence?
107. We say that it does not. In the first place such an argument would ignore the
fact that the legislature has required the complainant to clear some still
considerable hurdles of proof as provided for in Section 9(1). And it would
also ignore the fact that, after all is said and done, Section 9(2) leaves the
discriminator with some important defences, those most commonly invoked in
discriminator with some important defences, those most commonly invoked in
justification of price discrimination, albeit confined, in terms of Section 9(2),
to a closed list.
108. It is noteworthy as well that despite its per se elements – that is despite
belonging to that category of acts in which the complainant does not have to
establish an anticompetitive effect section 9 is not one of those for which a
first offender would be liable to a fine. This points as well to its unique
treatment in the Act, as a hybrid of antitrust and public interests, when
compared to the other per se or quasi per se prohibitions where fines are
levelled as in sections 4 (1)(b), 5(2) and 8(a), (b) and(d).
109. Thus to recap, the complainant, apart from what is required under 9(1)(a), has
not only to establish dominance but also discrimination and equivalence.
Subsection 9(1)(a) is about removing the irrelevant and the trivial; it is not
about placing in front of the complainant a hurdle that it can never hope to
clear if it is a small firm.
110. Moreover, in this case, as we will show when we discuss the evidence, in
addition to the elements of relevance (‘likely’) and substantiality, Mr Foot has
also demonstrated a theory explaining why Sasol has engaged in the
discrimination, one that suggests that the purpose of the price discrimination in
26
which it is engaged is anticompetitive. This evidence of intention bolsters the
notion of likelihood. We do not need to decide whether evidence of this nature
will always be required to meet section 9(1)(a), but it certainly bolsters the
showing of likelihood.
111. In summary then Mr Foot’s rejection of Sasol’s approach to Section 9(1)(a)
has both textual and contextual support. If one has regard to the policy to
which the legislature gave expression in the Act generally and in the
enactment of a standalone provision dealing with price discrimination, we see
that Mr. Foot’s approach is also consonant with a purposive approach to the
interpretation of the Act.
112. Having now determined the appropriate contextual and purposive approach to
Section 9(1)(a) we proceed to examine the evidence that has been led in
relation to this section.
Section 9(1)(a) – the evidence
113. Nationwide has provided evidence that purports to establish that the price
differential under which it labours substantially impairs its ability to compete
effectively with its larger and, by dint of the price regime, more privileged
competitors. It is common cause that creosote purchases constitute a
significant portion of Nationwide’s costs of production.
114. Nationwide claims that the price discrimination – the difference between the
price at which it procures creosote compared to price charged to its larger
rivals adds between 3% and 4% to Nationwide’s total cost structure. 50
Creosote accounts for about 25% of Nationwide’s total costs. 51 Nationwide
argues that the higher cost it pays for its inputs lessens its ability to compete in
that market because of the higher variable costs of production that it
imposes.52 We should add that in a market characterised by low margins the
imposes.52 We should add that in a market characterised by low margins the
imposition of an additional 34% on a firm’s cost structure should not be
construed as inconsequential. 53
115. Mr. Malherbe, the respondent’s expert witness, calculates that at the present
differential between the price at which Nationwide purchases creosote and that
at which its largest competitors receive creosote – the level of discount
between the purchasers amounting to some 14,3% were Nationwide to
receive the discounted price, its cost of production would reduce by some
3,6%.54 Therefore Nationwide has an overall increased cost, according to
50 Transcript page 318 second set of hearings on 23/11/04
51 Final transcript page 20, Complainant’s heads page 20.
52 First Set Heads of Argument page 19
53 There was disagreement regarding Nationwide’s margins. Mr. Foot states it has an average gross
delivered margin of about 16% and net exmill gross margin is 8%. (final argument transcript page 20).
Sasol stated it could not determine complainant’s net margin but believed it had improved substantially
over the past 23 years. Transcript page 318
54 Page 450 and 499
27
Sasol’s expert of between 3.6% and 3.8%. 55
116. Sasol attempts to counter the implication of this evidence by pointing out that,
despite this disadvantage Nationwide is able to compete successfully on the
price of its poles with its larger competitors, that, indeed, having acquired a
failed firm, Mr. Foot has managed to establish his company on a sound
footing. Thus competition, even assuming that its maintenance requires the
continued existence of Nationwide Poles, has not been impaired because,
avers Sasol, Nationwide has remained an active competitive force. We heard
considerable argument on this point. Mr. Foot insists that he is, in
consequence of the price discrimination and the competitive poles market,
obliged to accept lower margins than his more privileged larger competitors.
Mr. Foot argues, quite persuasively, and points to his audited accounts as
evidence, that he as the owner/manager of the business has little to show for
the alleged success of his efforts, indeed that it is only sacrifices of this nature
that have enabled the business to continue functioning.
117. It has not been possible to arrive at any firm conclusion on the basis of this
evidence and argument. Nor, given our interpretation of 9(1)(a), do we
believe that much turns on it. But it does indicate the absurdities of Sasol’s
interpretation. It is simply impossible to even identify the appropriate
counterfactual. Would Mr. Foot have to show that his business was failing in
order to establish that its competitiveness had been impaired by the price
disadvantage under which he laboured? Does the fact that he has managed to
keep a very small enterprise going indicate that Nationwide Poles has suffered
no competitive harm? Is his manifest failure to grow from a struggling small
no competitive harm? Is his manifest failure to grow from a struggling small
enterprise into a stable medium sized enterprise, capable of challenging the
largest players in the market, evidence of competitive harm? We are
persuaded that price discrimination clearly disadvantages Nationwide relative
to its major competitors.
118. We have already rejected as a matter of law Sasol’s argument that the
complainant must prove harm to consumer welfare. However Sasol goes
further, and argues that the impact of the price discrimination was so trivial
that it could not have had an adverse effect on the competitive structure of the
market. That is, it argues that even if the price discrimination reduced the
ability of Nationwide and other small producers to compete, indeed even if it
caused their demise, the intensity of competition in the market for poles would
not be substantially lessened. Sasol points out that only a small number of its
customers are in the highest price band, the band occupied by Nationwide, and
that competition is adequately secured by those pole manufacturers who are
not disadvantaged by the price discrimination. Here is where the ‘protect
competition, not competitors’ mantra referred to above comes into play: the
Tribunal’s concern, insists Sasol, should not be with the fortunes of a few
competitors, but rather with the intensity of competition in the pole market.
Sasol attempts to bolster its argument by insisting that it, as a supplier, would
55 Transcript page 450
28
have no interest in reducing the level of competition in the market of its
customers. Note however, and we will return to this later, Sasol has not
argued that its price discrimination actually promotes competition, that it is an
instance of ‘competition on the merits’.
119. Sasol has raised the question of its own interest in impairing competition in a
downstream market in which it has no interest other than as a seller. Indeed
Sasol asserts that as a seller of an input it is positively interested in
maintaining competition in the downstream market. Recall, however, that
Sasol has previously asserted that competition in the downstream pole market
will not be diminished by the demise of the small producers and so the interest
it asserts in a competitive downstream market is, on its own estimation, not
compromised by action that diminishes the competitiveness or even causes the
demise of the small players in the downstream market. Be that as it may, we
are of the view that certain of the evidence submitted to us does indeed
establish Sasol’s interest in discriminating against its smaller customers and
favouring its larger customers.
120. Monopolists – or, in the parlance of our Act, dominant firms – extract their
rents in one of two forms: supracompetitive profits or, as the eminent British
economist, Sir John Hicks, famously termed it, the ‘quiet life’. In this case we
have a very large producer of petroleum and chemical products seeking to
dispose of a product – creosote that is marginal relative to the firm’s total
output. It has no particular interest in expanding output of this product. In
fact it appears that technical considerations limit this option. As we have
shown, the commercial considerations of the greater Sasol subordinate
decisions regarding the pricing and output of creosote to far weightier issues,
decisions regarding the pricing and output of creosote to far weightier issues,
namely the fuel equivalent price of the feedstock and the need to optimise the
composition of the bouquet of products derived from the feedstock. Sasol’s
primary interest is in disposing of its variable output of creosote, the variances
being driven by exogenous factors.
121. These considerations, apart from dictating a low level of interest on Sasol’s
part in its smaller customers, also dictate that its focus is on satisfying its
larger customers. To some extent this latter purpose is achieved by giving
these larger customers a preferential price relative to the smaller players in the
pole market. In a market – the poles market – in which entry barriers are, it is
common cause, low, the price differential assists in limiting the entry of new
and small entrants and their ability to thrive. This is borne out by evidence
presented above on the impact of the price differential on the competitiveness
of small firms. It is also starkly confirmed by Sasol’s treatment of ‘twilight
treaters’.
122. ‘Twilight treaters’ are very small players who are not able to purchase their
creosote requirements by the lorry load, as in the case of the complainant and
the larger customers, but rather in drums supplied by retailers who are, in turn,
supplied by Sasol. It appears – and this is conceded by Sasol – Sasol’s larger
customers requested that Sasol increase the price of drum loads in order to
29
limit access and growth on the part of these microproducers. Sasol readily
acceded to this demand. Mr. Van Wyk’s evidence in this regard was
instructive. Though he averred that the industry association (SAWPA) had
advised Sasol to increase prices to the micro treaters to ensure the integrity
and safety of the product chain downstream, Sasol’s other motives are
apparent:56
“VAN WYK:…..So they are trying to get those guys out of the industry,
but then the industry came to us and said but you’re promoting the
twilight treaters, because you’re selling in drums to the coops. So the
twilight treater can come back and buy from the coop and treat, if you
can call it treat it or dip it or whatever, and sell it against our
customers. And they requested us to increase the price drastically so
that it doesn’t make it economical for that guy to buy creosote. It’s too
expensive for him to do his twilight treating. So that’s one reason the
market requirement or they asked us to do it. It is to prevent the
twilight treaters to be active in your market.”
123. If Sasol’s large customers fear of new entry is sufficiently great for them to
have demanded Sasol’s assistance in deterring the entry of microtreaters, we
readily infer that their interest in suppressing competition from established
small producers such as the complainant, is even greater. This, bolstered by
the evidence elaborated above that establishes the competitive harm that
accrues to small producers as a result of the price differential, exposes Sasol’s
interest in maintaining a discriminatory pricing structure.
124. Our conclusions are underpinned by Sasol’s failure to assert a procompetitive
argument in favour of price discrimination. 57 While we concede that Sasol is
not required to prove a procompetitive effect – in fact, as already elaborated,
not required to prove a procompetitive effect – in fact, as already elaborated,
the Act does not admit of a procompetitive defence – we are certain that had
there been a procompetitive effect we would have been told of this. Certainly
the competitive position of the larger poles producers is enhanced but this is
done by way of a practice – price discrimination – that is not competition on
the merits but rather that excludes small operators from the market or that, at
the very least, compromises their ability to compete effectively.
125. In summary we are satisfied that –
• The discount structures for the sale of creosote exhibit a material
differentiation as between the most and least favoured customers;
• Creosote is a significant input cost of firms such as the complainant who
compete in the treated poles market against rivals who benefit from the price
discrimination;
• That it is ‘likely’ that the complainant and firms similarly situated presently in
the market and new entrants, will be less effective competitors as a result of
56 Argument Transcript page 34.
57 It is not clear whether or not Sasol intends the theory of ‘risk reduction’ that was espoused by its
expert witness, Mr. Malherbe, to represent a procompetitive argument in favour of price
discrimination. If This argument is examined below in our analysis of the question of ‘equivalence’.
30
the discrimination;
• This is a market where small firms, absent price discrimination, can be
effective competitors to their larger rivals.
126. It follows that if firms such as the complainant are rendered less effective
competitors that this will have an effect on the competitive structure of the
market and so it is likely that this will substantially lessen or prevent
competition in the market, in the sense understood by the legislature for the
purpose of section 9 (1) (a).
Section 9(1)(b) Equivalent transactions
127. The concept of equivalence is not found in the Robinson Patman Act. It
appears that the requirement of ‘equivalence’ was introduced into the
legislation during the Parliamentary process subsection 9(1)(b) was not in
the original Bill. 58 Clearly the legislature sought to limit the ambit of price
discrimination by introducing another limiting feature to price discrimination,
one not found in the United States legislation.
128. ‘Equivalence’ is not defined in the Act and must be interpreted by the
adjudicator from its ordinary meaning and its purpose in the Act.
129. The Concise Oxford Dictionary provides several meanings for the word
equivalent. We will consider only the two that might be relevant here:
1. equal in value, amount, function, meaning etc . 2. (equivalent to) having the same
or similar effect “
130. We would suggest that this second definition is the more useful as it also fits
the purpose of the subsection.
131. Translating the dictionary meaning into the purpose of this subsection, we
would suggest that transactions are equivalent if they have the same or similar
economic effect.
132. Thus transactions may be functionally equal – one business class seat or one
telephone call between Cape Town and Johannesburg may be functionally
telephone call between Cape Town and Johannesburg may be functionally
equal to another business class seat or telephone call, but they may not be
equivalent (a call or a flight made in a peak time as opposed to one made
during a nonpeak period) in the sense that their economic effect is different
and hence the legislature, recognising this, chose not to bring ‘nonequivalent’
transactions under the rubric of prohibited price discrimination despite the fact
that in other respects they may be regarded as equal.
133. Sasol seems to accept this approach. Certainly its expert, in attempting to
explain the basis for the price gradations, appears to argue that sales to large
58 See the Bill dated 22 May 1998 No. 18913.
31
customers are not the business equivalent of sales to small customers.
“I would say at a general level this would refer or reflect the
change in value to the seller or the firm of moving from smaller
to larger customers. Now exactly what that curve of additional
value looks like, it will depend on a few things. I mean it will
depend on their perception of risk, of the relative level or risk of
the smaller and the larger customers, the risk to them of losing a
smaller versus a larger customer.” 59
134. The problem for Sasol is that this has been a post hoc argument by its
economist and is not supported either by way of any direct evidence of Sasol
or by the way the discrimination in question actually operates. If Sasol
reflected the reduction of value to it of the loss of the large customer by way
of a long term contract, as opposed to spot market transactions, this might
make transactions not equivalent even if they were equal (sales of creosote
effected by truckload) and so justify a price discrimination in favour of the
longterm contract customer. Here the nonequivalence is reflected by the
value of the future legal obligation imposed on the longterm customer to
which the spot customer is not subject. Sasol’s present discount structure
rewards the customer for past purchases, as we have seen in the previous
section, not its future purchases as would a longterm contract. Having
enjoyed a past benefit the customer is free at any stage to switch to a rival,
indeed since it receives its discount determination in advance of a three month
period, if it does not resume business it could even commence negotiations
with a new rival of Sasol whilst enjoying the last quarter of its discounts with
Sasol.
with a new rival of Sasol whilst enjoying the last quarter of its discounts with
Sasol.
135. So the economist’s theory of distinctiveness or nonequivalence is not
supported by the manner in which the discrimination is practised . Indeed the
alternative theory for its existence as posited in the previous discussions of
9(1)(a) is the more plausible, namely that it serves to protect large customers
against the threat of smaller entrants expanding in the market at their expense.
136. When pressed Mr Malherbe was frank enough to concede that:
“To what extent the intermediate levels or thresholds and indeed
discounts were determined on the same basis, I don’t know. But
what also seems to appear from his evidence is that they’ve
basically taken the structure that was designed 5 or 6 years ago
or even more and they’ve just, in a quite mechanical year,
updated it every year.” 60
Section 9(1)(c) The content of the discriminatory action
59 Transcript page 458
60 Transcript page 461
32
137. It is common cause that the discrimination in question relates to the price
differential engendered by differential discounts based on past sales volumes.
Different prices are charged to small and large customers, by dint of the
volume of their purchases from Sasol. This is sufficient to bring Sasol’s
conduct within the ambit of Section 9(1)(c).
Defences – Section 9(2)
138. Sasol has chosen not to avail itself of the defences provided for in Sections
9(2)(a)(c). Some of Sasol’s earlier submissions suggested that such a defence
would be forthcoming. 61 However this does not appear to have materialised –
certainly Sasol’s Heads of Argument make no mention of Section 9(2). In fact,
Sasol’s expert, specifically denied any relationship between the lower price
charged to the larger customers and the costs of that provision:
“So we needed to try to understand what really lay behind this and the
first possibility was that this simply reflected the costs of transacting
with different sizes of customers in an administrative sense. And it
became quite clear from our interviews with management that this was
not the case; that although this is a factor, as we heard today, these
price differences weren’t based on cost, on differences, in invoicing
cost, in market costs and so on.” 62
139. There was some discussion regarding scale economies in distribution. Mr.
Foot insisted that there were no scale economies in distribution because
creosote was delivered in standard 32ton truckloads and that a purchaser was
required to purchase at least a single truck load. In other words, he argued that
there were no economies to be gleaned in dispatching, say, ten 32ton trucks to
a large customer over a single 32 ton truck to a small customer as might exist
were Sasol to able to utilise larger trucks for delivering to its larger customers.
were Sasol to able to utilise larger trucks for delivering to its larger customers.
While this argument appears to have been rejected by Sasol, no attempt was
made to present evidence of actual scale economies in distribution.
Finding and remedies
140. We find that in the period in question Sasol was a dominant firm whose
conduct meets the test required in establishing prohibited price discrimination.
Sasol has not provided a justification for its conduct that meets the
requirements of Section 9(2). Sasol has thus contravened Section 9 of the
Competition Act. From the evidence placed before us we are able to conclude
61 See answering affidavit, record page 33, 4243. In particular at paragraph 26.1, in responding to
Nationwide’s allegation that Sasol is required to prove elements of section 9(2), Sasol suggests that
there are efficiency benefits to be derived from higher volume sales, and that large volume purchasers
provide Sasol with security with respect to uptake of its product. They indicate that further evidence of
this would be lead at the hearing. Whatever the merits of these arguments, they were never formulated
to meet the defences that are explicitly set out in section 9(2). In his closing argument Sasol’s counsel
explicitly states: ‘We are not seeking to suggest that the differentiation in price is cost related’.
62 Page 451 first set of hearings.
33
that the prohibited price discrimination occurred between April 2001 and
August 2004.
141. We reiterate our view that Section 9 should not be construed as imposing a
blanket prohibition of price differentiation. We underline that a finding that
price differentiation constitutes prohibited price discrimination requires,
firstly, a finding of dominance. In this case, we have found that, in the
relevant period, Sasol is dominant in the market for creosote by virtue of a
market share that exceeds 45%. We have also shown, although not strictly
speaking necessary, that it has market power in this market. Once a finding of
dominance has been made the three threshold elements provided for in Section
9(1) have to be present. While, in our view, this threshold is not intended to
impose a full rule of reason test, nor are the requirements of Section 9(1)
inconsequential. Finally there are the Section 9(2) defences. These were not
invoked by Sasol and we believe that the absence of scale economies in
serving large as opposed to small customers – for this is what we must infer
from Sasol’s failure to make a case for scale economies – is exceptional. If
proven, such a case would serve as a defence to most instances of price
discrimination.
142. We also note again that this section of the Act is a hybrid of public interest and
antitrust. The poles market appears to be a market with unusually low entry
barriers: it is a market in which small players could easily enter and thrive. As
such it seems to be a powerful example of the sort of sector that the legislature
had in mind when it outlawed price discrimination the better to realise one of
the express purposes of the Act, namely ‘to ensure that small and medium
sized enterprises have an equitable opportunity to participate in the economy’.
Remedies
sized enterprises have an equitable opportunity to participate in the economy’.
Remedies
143. Nationwide has asked for two forms of relief. In the first place it seeks a
declaration that ‘ a prohibited practice has occurred as is contemplated in
terms of section 65(6)(b).’
144. Given the finding that we have made we have no hesitation granting this
prayer for relief. This declaration allows Nationwide, should it so elect, to
found a claim for damages in the High Court.
145. The second prayer for relief is in the form of an interdict. Nationwide seeks an
order ‘Respondent be ordered to supply it with SAK K at the same price
afforded to Respondent’s most favoured customer.’
146. What this means in effect it that we have also been asked to instruct Sasol to
place Nationwide on a footing identical, in relation to the price of creosote, as
that of its largest competitors. This we cannot do. Our decision is derived
from the facts relevant to a particular period. Similar facts – notably as to the
question of dominance would have to pertain into the future to justify the
granting of an interdict. However, should Sasol be found to be to be in
34
continuing contravention of the Act, its conduct, were it once more to be
proved before this Tribunal, would lay it open to the imposition of an
administrative penalty.
Costs
147. In proceedings between private litigants we have generally followed the
practice of awarding costs to the successful party. We see no reason to depart
from that practice in this instance. Mr. Foot alone has represented
Nationwide, undoubtedly at considerable direct as well as indirect cost. It
seems only just that Nationwide be awarded costs on the basis that Mr Foot is
treated on taxation as if his services had been those of a qualified professional
legal representative. We accordingly order Sasol to pay Nationwide’s costs of
the cause on that basis.
____________________ 31 March 2005
D.H. Lewis Date
Concurring: N. Manoim, L. Reyburn
35